Unit 5 - Revolutions c. 1750 - 1900

Question 1

Explain how the Enlightenment affected societies over time.

Answer 1

• Enlightenment ideas influenced various reform movements that were concerned w/ expansion of rights:
  - expanded suffrage:
  - Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
  - Olympe de Gouges’s Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen
  - Seneca Falls Conference (1848)
  organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton &
  Lucretia Mott
  - the abolition of slavery
  - abolition of slave trade came first tho
  - end of serfdom (also advocated by abolitionism)
  - 1861 Alexander II of Russia abolished serfdom bc of peasant revolts -> +23 mil ppl freed

Question 2

Explain the intellectual and ideological context in which revolutions swept the Atlantic world from 1750 to 1900.

Answer 2

• rise + diffusion of enlightenment ideals often preceded revolutions against existing gov’t bc they questioned established trads
  - main ideals: individualism, freedom, and self-determination -> challenged role of monarchies
  - promoted empiricist thinking + logic + reasoning -> ↓ role of religion in daily life
• IMPORTANT WORKS + PPL:
• locke: believed ppl had natural rights: life, liberty, & property -> influenced declaration of independence
  - ppl can overthrow unjust gov’t
  - consent of the governed (gov’t derives power from ppl)
• hobbes: believed in absolute monarchy
  - social contract = agreement btwn ppl + gov’t -> ppl exchange some rights for law + order
  - explained his POV in Leviathan
• voltaire: believed vry much in freedom of speech/press
• montesquieu: separation of powers/checks + balances -> became basis for constitution
• rousseau: gov’t should be formed + guided by ppl
  - wrote the social contract + viewed it as an agreement btwn free ppl to create a gov’t
• adam smith: wealth of nations - idea of laissez-faire econ w/o interference
• ↑ in utopian communities (charles fourier + robert owen)
• NATIONALISM also played a role in starting revolutions:
  - start of zionist movement

Question 3

Explain causes and effects of the various revolutions in the period from 1750 to 1900.

Answer 3

• People around the world developed a new sense of commonality based on language, religion, etc. This
  was sometimes harnessed by states to foster a sense of unity:
  - new zealand wars where warring maori tribes had to work together to fight british
  - france’s third estate majority
  - haiti + black slaves
  - balkans (jeez)
  - ottomanism
  - puerto rico: writings of lola rodriguez de tio
  - propoganda movement in philippines: advocated for greater autonomy but leader executed -> philippine rev in 1896
  - italian unification: cavour wants to unify italian penin under House of Savoy -> uses realpolitik to form alliances w/ other powers + met up w/ garibaldi who worked to unify the south -> kingdom of italy
  - german unification:
  - napoleon’s occupation of germany -> growth of german nationalism -> otto van bismarck engineered wars (realpolitik) to strategically allow prussia to gain more territory -> 1871 new German Empire
• discontent w/ monarchy -> new systems of gov’t + ideologies like democracy + 19th cent liberalism
• FRENCH REV:
• funding american war + 7 yrs war left france in severe debt -> called in estates general:
  - 1st estate = clergy
  - 2nd estate = nobility
  - 3rd estate = starving commoners (made up 98% of pop)
  - 1st + 2nd paid no taxes while 3rd estate did + also only got one vote -> broke off + created National Assembly = louis xvi considers it a threat to his absolute monarchy -> angry mobs storm Bastille + riots in countryside -> king forced to accept new gov’t w/ national assembly in charge
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man established (similar to declaration of independence) -> king + nobility refused to accept limited monarchy -> jacobins mad -> First French Republic created in 1792
• Reign of Terror occurred in meantime where Robespierre control gov’t + executed ppl (including louis + marie) w/ guillotine if against rev
• ended in 1804 w/ napoleon as emperor
• HAITIAN REV:
• toussaint l’ouverture, an escaped slave, + his army composed of enslaved africans + maroons established an indep gov’t that played the Spanish, French, & British against each other
• l’ouverture took control of the lands that would become haiti + wrote a constituion that granted equality to its citizens + enacted land reforms by dividing up plantations -> distributing them among enslaved + free black ppl
• l’ourverture soon arressted by french -> his general dessalines declares haiti permanently indep
  - important bc first black-led country in western hemisphere + first country to gain independence in Latin America
• LATIN AMERICAN REV:
• causes:
  - mercantilist policies = only buy/sell from spain
  - creoles vs peninsulares
  - mestizos want more power
  - CATALYST: napoleon invades spain + instills new king
• Bolivar: enlightened wealthy creole freed Vene, Colo, Ecu, Boli, and Panama
  - “the liberator”
  - wanted to form Gran Colombia but that failed
  - wrote the Letter from Jamaica in 1815 which expressed his interest for a free market, abolition of slavery, latin american unity, & hatred for spain
• Jose de San Martin freed chile, arg, & peru
• after revs, same social institutions like casta system, patriarchy, catholic church, etc

Question 4

Explain how environmental factors contributed to industrialization from 1750 to 1900. (causes + effects of industrialization + why britain first)

Answer 4

• CAUSES:
• intercultural exchanges of the Columbian Exchange
• rise of eu maritime empires + wealth they brought in
• ↑ individual accumulation of wealth
• ↑ agricultural productivity (agricultural rev)
  - crop rotation
  - the seed drill
  - farmers can support more ppl but less farmers needed + enclosure movement (privatized public land) -> poorer farmers forced to move to urban areas for factory work
• EFFECTS:
• rapid urbanization
• ↑ world pop
• expanding the production + consumption of goods
• ↑ standard of living
• britain had many factors that made it a leader in industrialization:
  - Proximity to waterways; access to rivers and canals -> transport of raw materials + finished products much cheaper + efficient
  - Geographical distribution of coal, iron, and timber (important energy sources & materials)
  - Improved agricultural productivity
  - Legal protection of private property -> provided peace of mind to entrepreneurs that their businesses won’t be taken down
  - Access to foreign resources (colonizing power remember?)
  - Accumulation of capital (participation in transatlantic slave trade helped w/ this)

Question 5

In what ways did the development of the factory system concentrate production in a single location and lead to an increasing degree of specialization of labor?

Answer 5

• spinning jenny: invented by James Hargreaves in the 1760s, allowed a weaver to spin more than one thread at a time -> ↓ the demand for workers
• water frame: invented by richard akrwright in 1769, it utilized waterpower to fuel the spinning jenny
  - basically eradicated cottage industry bc as production moved to factories next to rivers to house the bulky water frames, less human labor needed
• interchangeable parts: invented by eli whitney - if a component of a firearmb breaks, there’s an identical spare to replace it with -> directly influenced specialization + division of labor
• henry ford’s assembly line: workers had specific + repeating jobs that added on parts to a product

Question 6

explain how industrialization spread to certain countries in the period circa 1750 - 1900 and why middle eastern + asian countries’ share in global manufacturing declined.

Answer 6

• nations that were able industrialize needed to have monetary + human capital, natural resources, & water transportation
  - france did not have urban centers + french rev + wars w/ others delayed it
  - germany’s not unified circumstances delayed it but became a leading producer of steel + coal when bismarck unified it
  - US industrial rev began in 1800s bc of its immense supply of human capital (workforce)
  - many eu + e. asian ppl immigrated to the US to escape political upheaval + poverty at home
  - russia focused on railroads + exports
  - Trans-Siberian Railroad largest one
  - still remained agrarian-based econ until commies take over in 1917
  - japan = first asian country to industrialize even tho it had little contact w/ eu
  - used defensive modernization = conciously adapted western tech + institutions to protect their trad culture -> late half of 1900s japan became a leading world power
• nations that couldn’t industrialize saw their global share in manufacturing decline even tho they CONTINUED to manufacture stuff:
  - Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia
  - british mismanagement of resources + incompetent leadership + indian navy replaced by british royal navy led to this
  - Iron works in India
  - high british taxes reduced ability to work mines + after sepoy rebellion britain closed mines completely in fear that they were being used to mine lead for ammunition -> Arms Act of 1878 limited access to minerals and thus firearms
  - Textile production in India and Egypt
  - indian textile prod = vry good -> angered british mills bc they couldn’t compete -> british gov’t in india enacted “equalizing” 5% tax
  - egypt was undermined bc of growth of eu textile prod + their global reach -> lost domestic + home market

Question 7

Explain how technology shaped fossil fuel usage, production of resources such as iron and steel, and economics in the period circa 1750 - 1900.

Answer 7

• The dev of machines, including steam engines and the internal combustion engine, made it possible to take advantage of fossil fuels, specifically coal and oil. The fossil fuels revolution ↑ the energy available
  - coal was efficient + cheap
  - coal-powered steam engines = mobile + reliable -> steam-powered ships replaced wind-based ships -> coaling stations established at critical pts as refueling stations
• The “second industrial revolution” led to new methods in the steel prod, chemicals, electricity, & precision machinery - 1850s - 1900s ish
  - iron prod got better bc of introduction of coke (refined coal that made it easier to use bigger iron-producing furnaces), cast iron = strong yet brittle, & wrought iron = less strong but flexible
  - bessemer process refined steel -> made it pop
  - commercial oil wells tapped into a new energy source: petroleum in which kerosene could be extracted -> precision machinery + internal combustion engine -> automobile + airplane tech
• railroads, steamships, telephone, & the telegraph made exploration & communication possible in interior regions globally -> ↑ trade + migration
  - radio, telephone, & telegraph allowed for immediate communication -> sharing of ideas = more efficient
  - Transcontinental Railroad in US connected the country -> facilitated american industrial growth
  - canals + railroads publicly funded

Question 8

Describe how certain states and governments promoted their own state-sponsored visions of industrialization.

Answer 8

• ottoman empire became “sick man of eu” bc of failed modernization, ethnic nationalism, & bad leadership so it ruled solely in name in some places like Egypt
  - ottoman officer named Muhammad Ali was sent to retake Egypt but he became its governor instead (sultan couldn’t refuse bc he was weak)
  - he levied high taxes on the peasants so they were forced to sell their lands to the gov’t where the state could control the flourishing cotton prod + built textile factories to compete w/ france + britain
• after disastrous opium wars, qing china implemented the self-strengthening movement to adopt western tech + policies but ultimately failed bc they wanted military and economic reforms but w/o accompanying social or political reforms
• prussia established the zollverein, an econ union which dismantled tax barriers btwn states, to promote free trade, stimulate growth of German industry, & help foster nationalism + unity
• MEIJI RESTORATION:
• The expansion of U.S. and European influence in Asia led to internal reform in Japan that supported industrialization and led to the growing power of Japan
• west was interested in japan bc they wanted to sell goods to them + coaling stations there but japan = isolating -> US sends Commodore Perry asking for trade privileges -> japan initially refused but perry threatened to come back next yr w/ bigger firearms + demanded that they engage in trade -> japan eventually gave in ENDING JAPANESE ISOLATION
• do defensive modernization known as Meiji Restoration as they overthrow the shogun + restore power to emperor in 1868
• enacted several reforms via Charter Oath including:
  - abolishment of feudalism
  - establishing constitutional monarchy
  - expanding edu
  - funding industrialization in the key industries of tea, silk, weaponry, shipbuilding, & sake
  - levied high agricultural taxes = good investment bc it stimulated rapid econ growth
• once new industries flourished, they were sold to zaibatsu, powerful Japanese family business organizations -> possibility of attracting investors encouraged tech innovation such as the Toyoda Loom Works company

Question 9

Explain the development and effects of new economic ideologies and institutions implemented in the period 1750 - 1900.

Answer 9

• w. eu countries began abandoning mercantilism & adopting free trade policies, partly in response to the growing acceptance of Adam Smith’s theories of laissez-faire capitalism and free markets
  - smith argued for minimal gov’t interference + reduction of tariffs saying that the ‘invisible hand’ of the market would guide & correct itself
• the global nature of trade led to the widespread use of transnational businesses/corporations
  - corporations became pop bc they minimized risk (owned by several stockholders who could only lose as much as the amount they invested in - LIMITED LIABILITY)
  - some corporations became so powerful they were the sole market for an industry
  - ex: John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil
  - Other companies were transnational, meaning that they operated beyond national boundaries
  - ex:
  - Unilever (soap manufacturer) is based in England & the Netherlands & operating in British West Africa & the Belgian Congo
  - Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC - a british venture)
• dev of industrial capitalism -> ↑ standards of living for some + continued to improve manufacturing methods that increased the availability, affordability, & variety of consumer goods -> dev of consumer culture
  - growth of mid class + better living standards = ppl had more time for leisure + more $ to spend on nonessential items -> more advertising
  - biking, boating, sports, music halls, and public halls were common leisure activities

Question 10

Explain the causes and effects of calls for changes in industrial societies from 1750 to 1900.

Answer 10

• in the 1800s, factories were dangerous + had unsanitary working conditions + low wages + long hours + child labor
• sadler report released in 1833 documenting abuses -> ↑ awareness of the need for reforms in britain
• in industrialized states, many workers organized themselves, often in labor unions, to improve working conditions, limit hours, & gain higher wages
  - they also sparked a larger discussion abt voting rights -> In 1832, 1867, & 1884, the British parliament passed bills that reduced property ownership qualifications thus ↑ the # of eligible men who could vote (women get it in 1928)
  - they also advocated against child labor: 1843 law declared that kids younger than 10 could not work in coal mines + 1881 edu became required for kids 5 yrs -10 yrs
• capitalism’s excesses prompted other econ + pol systems to form
  - marx + engels wrote communist manifesto which argued that capitalism produced a lot of wealth but also unnecessary poverty + misery since the bourgeoisie, driven by market competition, exploited the proletariat to maximize profits
  - marx claimed that the proletariat would revolt + take control of the means of production so they can distribute wealth fairly (socialism) -> class distinctions would end soon after (communism)
• In response to the expansion of industrializing states, the Ottoman Empire and Qing
  China sought to reform and modernize their economies and militaries. however they were often resisted by some members of gov’t or established elite groups
  - mahmud ii reformed the ottoman empire by abolishing the janissaries + creating a new eu-trained army (istanbul janissaries tried to revolt but were killed) + feudal system was abolished + built roads
  - reforms after him are known as the Tanzimat reforms which:
  - rooted out widespread corruption in gov’t
  - established secular schools
  - codifying + creating new laws to make it easier for foreigners to do business
  - edict called Hatt-i Humayun which declared equality for all men regardless of religion + ethnicity
  - millets, separate legal courts run by diff religious communities who used their own set of religious laws, were regulated
  - reforms didn’t even mention women + didn’t achieve true religious equality
  - sultan after mahmud, abdulhamid aka red sultan, drove young turks into exile + armenian massacre in 1894-6 (diff from armenian genocide which happened after wwi)
  - qing china undertook the Self-Strengthening Movement in the late 1800s however after China’s defeat after the sino-japanese war the emperor supported the Hundred Days of Reform which were more extreme but Empress Dowager Cixi imprisoned the emperor + repealed his reforms bc she feared foreign influence + resisted any new tech that would expand their reach into her country like railroads
  - she later realized how corrupt the civil service system was (bribes) so she abolished it
  - there was also resistance in japan coming from the samurai (the system was ended in 1871)

Question 11

Explain how industrialization caused change in existing social hierarchies and standards of living.

Answer 11

• New social classes, including the middle class (white-collar) & the industrial working class (blue collar), developed
• women were subjected to the Cult of Domesticity which encouraged women to be pious + submissive
  - mid class women lived vry limited lives (only in the house) bc of this
  - working-class women even more taxed bc they had to manage the household, care for kids, & work
• women + children usually worked in textile factories + coal mines
  - were considered cheapest source of labor
• rapid urbanization led to a variety of challenges like:
  - pollution (smog from factories, factories dumping waste into streams, etc)
  - poverty
  - increased crime
  - public health crises
  - housing shortages (slums + tenets)
  - insufficient infrastructure to accommodate urban growth (no fire departments + no sewer systems, etc)