Unit 4 Ich Flashcards
Motivation
Where does the word come from?
from the latin word movere (to move)
Motivation
What does it involve?
the processes that energize, direct and sustain behavior
Motivation
What does it refer to in the educational field?
student’s interest in their own learning or in the activities that lead to it
-> constitutes a preliminary step to learning (is its engine)
related to why students behave in a certain way
Motivation
How does success relate to motivation?
the more success a person achieves, the more motivation they will experience
Motivation
What are the 4 perspectives of Motivation?
The behavioral perspective
The cognitive perspective
The humanistic perspective
The social perspective
Perspectives of Motivation
What is important in the Behvioural Perspective?
Reinforcement or Punishment (operant conditioning)
-> Direct attention toward appropriate behaviour and away from inappropriate behaviour.
Perspectives of Motivation
What are Incentives in the Behavioral Perspective?
positive or negative stimuli or events
-> add interest or excitement to the class
e.g.: numerical scores, letter grades, checkmarks or stars for work
Perspectives of Motivation
What are some problems of positive punishments?
- traumas
- mistrust towards parents
- can be useful for stopping bad behaviors but not for creating good ones
Perspectives of Motivation
What ist the focus on in the humanistic perspective?
- Stresses students’ capacity for personal growth.
- Freedom to choose their destiny and positive qualities (being sensitive)
Perspectives of Motivation
what is a theory of the humanistic perspective?
- Abraham Maslow: basic needs must be met before higher needs can be satisfied
- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Perspectives of Motivation - Humanistic Perspective
What does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs state?
it is a motivational theory in psychology
-> compromises a model of human needs
needs at bottom of hierarchy must be satisfied
Perspectives of Motivation - Humanistic Perspective
What are the needs of Maslow’s pyramide from the lowest to the highest?
- Physiological: hunger, thirst, sleep
- Safety needs: ensuring survival (protection from war and crime)
- Love and belonging: security, affection and attention
- Esteem: feeling good about oneself
- Self-actualization: realization of one potential
Perspectives of Motivation - Humanistic Perspective
What is the highest and most elusive of Maslow’s needs?
Self-actualization
-> according to maslow only possible after the lower needs have been met
-> says that most people stop maturing at self-esteem
motivation to develop one’s full potential as human beings
Perspectives of Motivation - Humanistic Perspective
What are Discrepancies with Maslow’s theory?
- some students cognitive motivation to acquire and understand information and knowledge might have stronger value than esteem needs
- others might meet it though they have not experiened love and belongingness
Perspectives on Motivation
What does the Cognitive Perspective state?
student’s mind guide their motivation
Perspectives of Motivation
What does the Cognitive Perspective focus on?
students intrinsic motivation, their attributions, their expectations for success and their beliefs that they can effectivels control their environment and the outcomes of their efforts
Perspectives of Motivation
What is the difference between the Behavioral perspective and Cognitive perspective?
Behavioral perspective: student’s motivation is a consequence of external incentives
Cognitive perspective: external influences should be de-emphasized
Perspectives of Motivation - Cognitive Perspective
What does Belonging mindset describe?
the belief that people like you belong for example in your university
-> many students not sure wether they belong or are well-connected
Perspectives of Motivation - Cognitive Perspective
Which types of belonging are there?
+ what are they correlated with?
negative sense of belonging: lower academic achievement
positive sense of belonging: better physical and mental health
Perspectives of Motivation
What are 2 types of people in the social perspective?
(one side)
- shy: afraid to meet someon new because of thoughts, feelings and emotions
- introverted: enjoying being around people but need to spend time alone to recharge social batteris
Perspectives of Motivation - Social Perspective
What is the need for affiliation or relatedness?
what does it involve?
the motive to securely connect with other people
-> involves establishing, maintaining and restoring warm, close, personal relationships
reflected in motivation to spend time with peers
Perspectives of Motivation - Social Perspective
Will we be good with others when we are not good with ourselves?
no
-> relationship with others start from a need
-> will be emotinoal avoidance
Motivation
What are 2 types of motivation?
extrinsic and intrinsic
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
What is extrinsic motivation?
doing something to obtain something else
-> governed by reinforcement contingencies
“A means to an end”
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
What is intrinsic motivation?
doing something for its own sake
-> personal enjoyment, interest, or pleasure
“an end in itself”
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
What has been proven?
- when goals framed only extrinsically: level of indpendent motivation and persistence on achievement tasks
- more highly motivated to learn when they are given hoices and become absorbed in challenges that match their skills and receive rewards that have informational value but are used for control
Intrinsic Motivation
What is self-determination and personal choice?
students believe that they are doing something because of their own will, not because of external success or rewards
-> internal motiation and intrinsic interest in school task
extrinsic & intrinsic motivation
what increases when students have some choice and some opportunity to take personal responsibility for their learning?
internal motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks
Instrinsic motivation
What is optimal experiences and flow?
what do people report?
optimal experiences involve feelings of deep enjoyment and happiness
intrinsic motivation
what is flow?
describes optimal experiences in life
-> sense of mastery and absorbation in a state of concentration while engaging in an activity
-> task neither too difficult (learned helplessness), nor too easy (boring)
Intrinsic motivation
What does students perceived level of challenge paired with their perceived level of their own skill lead to?
low - low: apathy
low - high: boredom
high - low: anxiety
high - high: flow
Intrinsic motivaiton
what are different kinds of interest?
individual interest: thought to be relatively stable
situational interest: believed to be generated by specific aspects of a task activity
Intrinsic motivation
What is Cognitive Engagement and Self- Responsibility?
- Creating learning environments that encourage students to become cognitively engaged
- get students to master ideas rather than simply doing enough work to just pass grades
- connect subject matter content and skills (learning with meaningful contexts - real world situations)
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
what is the overwhelming conclusion of motivation reasearch?
- teachers should encourage children to become intrinsically motivated
- environments to promote students cognitive engagement and self-responsibilty for learning
Motivation
what kind of motivation does the real world include?
Extrinsic & Intrinsic
Motivation
can extrinsic & intrinsic motivation operate simultaneously?
yes
Motivation
What do many educational psychologists recommend?
that extrinsic motivation by itself is not a good strategy
attribution theory
what does it state?
that individuals are motivated to discover the underlying cuases of their own performance and behavior
seeking to explain the cause behind what happens.
attribution theory
When are we most likely to search for a cause or explanation of what happens?
when unpredicted and significant events end in failure
e.g.: good student gets low grade
Attribution theory
what are the 3 dimensions of causal attributions?
- locus: wether the cause is internal or external to the actor
- stability: the extent to which the cause remains the same or changes
- controllability: the extent to which the individual can control the cause
attribution theory
what does the stability - locus diagram state?
stable - internal: ability
unstable - internal: motivation
stable - external: task difficulty
unstable - external: luck
Attribution theory
what are the most frequently inferred causes of success & failure?
ability, mood, help from others, effort, task diffulty, luck
Attribution theory
what are the eight combinations of causal attributions and how are they affecting the reasons stuents give for failure
Internal-stable-uncontrollable: low aptitude
Internal-stable-controllable: never study
internal-unstable-uncontrollable: sick the day of test
internal-unstable-controllable: did not study for this test
external-stable-uncontrollable: though requirements
external-stable-controllable: exam is diffictult
external-unstable-uncontrollable: bad luck
external-unstable-controllable: hangover
attribution strategies
What do educational psychologists often recommend to help students change their attributions?
- providing students with a planned schedule of goals
- modelling, giving information about learning strategies
- increasing practice and providing feedback
attribution strategies
Which strategies help the students to change their attributions?
- Concentrate on the task rather than worrying about failing
- cope with failures by retracing their steps to discover their mistake or by analyzing the problem to discover another approach
- attribute their failures to a lack of effort rather than a lack of ability
mastery orientation and mindset
what is mastery orientation?
focus on developing one’s skills, improving competence and mastering new knowledge or abilities rather than solely seeking external rewards of comparing oneself to others
-> concentrate on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than the outcome
mastery orientation and mindset
what is mindset?
An individual’s beliefs and attitudes about their abilities, intelligence, and the nature of learning and achievement
mindset
according to carol dweck, what are two types of mindset?
- fixed mindset
- growth mindset
mindset
What is a fixed mindset?
believe that their qualities are fixed and cannot change
-> tend to avoid challenges, give up easily when faced with difficulties
-> can limit academic achievement and personal development
similar to helplessness orientation
Mindset
what is a growth mindset?
belief is that abilities and intelligence can be developed through effort, learning, and persistence.
-> see challenges as opportunities to learn and are more resilient
-> love for learning, taking new challenges
-> can lead to higher academic achievement and personal development
Mindset
What are specific strategies to shift from a fixed mindset to a growth mindset?
- education on growth mindset: understanding the difference between both mindsets
- refraiming failure: changing perception of failure from something negative to viewing it as opportunity
- setting learning goals: encourage setting of learning goals instead of focusing on performance goals such as achieving a perfect grade
- promoting effort and persistance: encourage the idea that effort is an essential part of learning, persistance in the face of challenges is valuable
Pygmalion Effect
What does the Pygmalion effect mean?
Teachers’ expectations influence students’ motivation and performance
-> when teachers hold high generalized expectations for student achievement and students perceive these expectations, students achieve more, experience greater sense of self-esteem and competence as learners and resist involvement in problem behaviors both during childhood and adolescence
Pygmalion effect
who do teacher tend to have more positive expectations for?
high-ability than low-abilty students
-> expectations are likely to influence their behavior toward them
Pygmalion effect
how do teacher’s expectations influence their behavior toward the students?
- want high-ability students to work harder
- wait longer for them to respond to questions
- respond to them with more information and in a more elaborate way
- criticize them less often
- praise them more often
- are more friendly to them, call on them more often
- they seat them closer to their desks
- are more likely to give them the benefit of the doubt than they are for students with a low ability
Learning disabilities
What is a learning disability?
what do children have difficulties with?
difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written langugae and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing and spelling
-> may involve difficulty in doing mathematics
Learning disabilites
What is necessary for it to be classified as a learning disability?
the learning problem is not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disability; emotional disorders; or due to environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage
learning disabilities
who is more likely to have a learning disability and how much more?
why is that?
boys are about three times more classified than girls
-> greater biological vulnerability among boys and referral bias (boys are more likely to be referred to by teachers for treatment because of their behavior)
Learning disabilities
What are children with a learning disability more likely to?
to show poor academic performance, high dropout rates and poor employment and postsecondary education records
learning diabilities
do children with learning diabilities who are thought in a regular classroom without extensive support achieve the level of competence of children without a disability?
rarely
Learning disabilities
what are the 3 most common learning difficulties?
Reading, Writing, Maths
Learning Disabilities
What is the learning disability regarding reading and spelling called? How common is it?
Dyslexia
- 80% of children have it
- Difficulty with phonological skills: they are not able to understand how sounds and letters match up to
make words and also can have problems in comprehension
Learning difficulties
What is the learning disability regarding difficulty in handwriting called?
Dysgraphia
- children may write very slow, writing products may be illegible and they make numerous spelling errors because of their inability to match up sounds and letters
Learning disabilities
What is the learning disability regarding math computation called?
Dyscalculia
- developmental arithmetic disorder
- children with difficulties in math computation often have cognitive and neuropsychological deficits, including poor performance in working memory, visual perception, and visuospatial abilities
Learning disabilities
what are the causes of disabilities?
have not yet been determined
some possible causes are:
- genetic transmission
- often result from issues in how different brain regions colaboraten in brain structures and fucntions
- problems during prenatal development or delivery
Learning disablities
what are some interventions?
- Intensive instructional methods (by a competent teacher)
- Improving reading ability
- Early intervention
Learning disabilities
What is the Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
a disability in which children consistently show one or more of these characteristics over a period of time: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
-> girls with ADHD present more inattention
four to nine times more in boys than in girls
Learning disabilities
What do children with ADHD display depending on the characteristics?
o ADHD with predominantly inattention.
o ADHD with predominantly hyperactivity/impulsivity.
o ADHD with both inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity.
Learning disabilities - ADHD
What are some characteristics of inattentive children?
- Difficulty sustaining attention.
- Boredom after a few minutes while performing a task
Learning diabilities - ADHD
What are some characteristics of hyperactive children?
- Always «in motion».
- High levels of physical activity
Learning disabilities - ADHD
What are some characteristics of impulsive children?
- Difficulty curbing their actions.
- They have difficulties in thinking before acting
Learning disabilities - ADHD
What are some treatment options?
- Medication: Ritalin or Adderal (improves attention but not to same level as children without ADHD)
- Comining Treatment: Medication + Behaviour management (better improvement)
- Cognitive & Physical training: becoming more aware of physiological responses (better control over their brains prefrontal cottext), mindfulness, tai chi, yoga and physical activity
Learning disabilities - ADHD
what are some myths?
- ADHD does not exist: it is new but existence is reality and can be seen in scientific literature since the nineteenth century
- ADHD is a problem of education: they are not made, they are born. it is inherited
- Children with ADHD are lazy: they find it harder to study
learning disabilities
what is Intellectual disabilities
a condition with onset before age 18 that involves low intelligence (usually below 70) and difficulty in adapting to everyday life
-> only when evident since childhood
gradually teached in regular classrooms
learning disabilities
what were kids with an intellectual disability identified by before formal tests were devloped to assess intelligence?
were identified by a lack of age-appropriate skills in learning and caring for themselves
Learning disabilities - intellecutal disability
what are types of support?
- intermittent (support provided as needed - episodic or short-term)
- limited (support intense and relatively consistent over time)
- extensive (regular involvement in at least some settings)
- pervasive (supports are constant, very intense and provided across settings)
Intellectual Disability
what is the most commonly identified form of intellectual disability?
Down syndrome
-> 47 chromosomes instead of 46
Intellectual Disability
Besides down syndrome, what are other factors that can cause intellectual disability?
- infections in the pregnant mother such as rubella, syphilis, herpes and AIDS
- meningitis and encephalitis cause inflammation in brain and can produce intellectual disability
- environmental hazards: malnutrition, poisoning, birth injury, alcoholism or heavy drinking
Learning disablities - physical disorders
what do physical disorders include?
orthopedic impairments, such as cerebral palsy, and seizure disorders (epilepsy)
-> many children with physical disorders require special education and related service, such as transportation, physical therapy, school health services and psychological services
Physical Disorders
What are Orhtopedic impairments?
- restricted movements or lack of control of movements due to muslce, bone or joint problems
- cerebral palsy: involves a lack of muscular coordination, shaking, or unclear speech
-> most common cause is a lack of oxygen at birth
Physical disorders
What are seizure disorders?
- most common seizure disorder is epilepsy (recurring sensorimotor attacks or movement convulsions)
- children who experience seizures are usually treated with on eor more anticonvulsant medications (effective in reducing the seizures but do not always eliminate them)
learning disabilities
what do sensory impairments include?
visual (the need for corrective lenses, low vision, and being educationally
blind) and hearing impairments (can be born deaf or experience a loss of hearing as they develop)
Sensory Impairments
What do visual impairments contain?
- Low vision: these children can read large-print books or regular books with the aid of a magnifying glass.
- Children who are educationally blind: cannot use their vision in learning and must rely on their hearing and touch to learn.
- Determine the modality (such as touch or hearing) through which the child learns best. Seating in the front of the class often benefits the child with a visual impairment/3D printing/haptic devices
Sensory impairments
what do hearing impairments contain?
- Children who are born deaf or experience significant hearing loss in the first several years of life usually do not develop normal speech and language.
- Oral approaches include using lip reading, and speech reading.
- Manual approaches involve sign language and finger spelling.
o Sign language is a system of hand movements that symbolize words.
o Fingerspelling consists of “spelling out” each Word by signing.
Learning disabilities - Speech & Language Disorders
What do Speech & Language Disorders include?
several speech problems (such as articulation disorders, voice disorders, and fluency disorders) and language problems (difficulties in receiving information and expressing thoughts)
-> 21% of all children in special education
Speech & Language Disorders
What is an articulation disorder?
problems in pronouncing sound correctly
Speech & Language Disorders
What is a voice disorder?
disorders producing speech that is hoarse, harsh, too loud, too high-pitched, or too low-pitched
Speech & Language Disorders
What is a fluency disorder?
disorders that often involve stuttering (childs speech has spasmodic hesitation, prolongation or repitition)
Speech & Language Disorders
What is a language disorder?
which 2 types are there?
significant impairments in a childs receptive or expressive language
- receptive language: reception and understanding
- expressive language: ability to use language to express one’s thoughts and communicate with others
Speech & Language Disorders
What is the treatment for Speech & Language Disorders?
speech therapy
Speech & Language Disorders
What does the Specific language impairment (SLI) (Developmental language disorder) involve?
language development problems with no other obvious physical, sensory or emotional difficulties
Children with SLI - problems in understanding & using words in sentences
SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT (SLI) (DEVELOPMENTAL LANGUAGE DISORDER)
What are the Indicator of SLI?
incomplete understanding of verbs
-> typically drop -s from tenses (she walk to the store) and ask questions without “be” or “do” verbs (instead does he live there? - he lives there?
sound 2 years younger than they are
SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT (SLI) (DEVELOPMENTAL LANGUAGE DISORDER)
What is a treatment for SLI?
Early identification is important - can usually be accurately accomplished by 5 years of age and in some cases earlier
SPECIFIC LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENT (SLI) (DEVELOPMENTAL LANGUAGE DISORDER)
What are interventions for SLI?
- Modeling correct utterances, rephrasing the child’s incorrect utterances during a conversation.
- Reading instruction.
- Parents may also wish to send a child with SRI to a speech or language pathologist.
Learning Disablities
What is the autistic disorder?
a severe developmental autism spectrum disorder that has its onset during the first three years of life and includes deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior
Autism Spectrum Disorders
What are the 3 levels?
Level 1: High-functioning autism (needs support)
Level 2: Autism (needs substantial support)
Level 3: Severe autism (needs very substantial support)
Autism Spectrum Disorders
What is the Asperger syndrome?
a relatively mild autism spectrum disorder in which the child has relatively good verbal language skills, milder nonverbal language problems and a restricted range of interests and relationships
Autism Spectrum Disorder
What do children with Asperger syndrom often do?
Engage in obsessive, repetitive routines and preoccupations with a particular
subject.
e.g.: a child may be obsessed with baseball scores or YouTube videos
Autism Spectrum Disorders
What are obsessive Interests, repetitive routines, preoccupation with details, social impact or emotional response in the Asperger Syndrome?
- obsessive interests: specific subjects, unusal focus
- repetitive routines: daily rituals, repetitive play
- preoccupation with details: in depth knowledge, focus on parts
- social impact: conversational style might be one-sided, peer relationships challenging to connect
- emotional response: attachement to interests, anxiety and distress due to changes in routines
Autism Spectrum DIsorders
What are some causes?
ausitm is a brain dysfunction characterized by abnormalities in brain and neurotransmitters
- lack of connectivity between brain regions
- genetic factors also likely play a role but NO evidence that family socialization causes autism
- intellectual disability is present in some children with autism, while others show average or above-average intelligence
Autism Spectrum Disorders
What are some interventions?
- well structured classroom
- individualized instruction and small-group instruction
- behavior modification techniques
Emotional & Behavioral Disorders
What are Emotional and Behavioral Disorders?
What are the 2 main disorders?
Serious and persistent problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears associated with personal or school matters, and other inappropriate socioemotional characteristics
Main Disorders: Depression and Anxiety
Emotional & Behavioral Disorders
What are some characteristics of Depression?
- kid feels worthless and useless, believes that things are unlikely to get better and behaves lethargically for a long time
- signs for two weeks or longer
- more likely to appear in adolescence
- females aplify depressed mood
- males distract themselves
Emotional & Behavioral Disorders
What are some characteristics of Anxiety?
involves a highly unpleasant feeling of fear and worry, as well as associated behavioral disorders that maintain anxiety
-> fear is normal but only to a certain degree
Anxiety
What does the STAIC (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) state?
state anxiety: specific situation
trait anxiety: generalized anxiety
Self-concept
what is the definition?
refers to our perceptions of ourselves
-> how we see our abilities, attitudes, attributes, beliefs and expectations
-> mental picture of who we are
-> attempt to explain ourselves to ourselves to build a scheme that organizes our impressions, attitudes and beliefs about ourselves
Self-concept
what can our self-perception vary from?
situation to situation and from one phase of our lives to another
Self-esteem
What is it?
an overall and subjective judgment of self-worth
-> consists of feeling proud or ashamed of youself as a person
Self-acceptance
what is the definition?
the state of complete acceptance of oneself with your positive and negative attributes
-> embracing who you are, without any qualifications, conditions or exceptions
what is the difference between self-concept and self-esteem?
self-concept: perception of who you are
self-esteem: an overall, general sense of value or self-worth
self-concept
how does it develop?
evolves through constant self-evaluation in different situations
-> sifnificant people in their childs life (their verbal and nonverbal reactions)
self-concept
how does the self-concept of younger children tend to be?
positive and optimistic
-> don’t compare themselves to peers
self-concept
what is the illusion of incompetence?
serious underestimation of their competence
-> not accurate in judging their own abilities
-> self-concepts tied to physical appearance and social acceptance as well as school achievement
How can we help develop a positive self-concept and self-esteem in the classroom?
- Teachers’ positive feedback.
- Grading practices with justice.
- Being aware of our communication styles: caring for students can make a difference in how students feel about their abilities in particular subjects.
- Practices that allow authentic participation, cooperation, problem-solving, and accomplishment.
- Letting students grow more competent in areas they value—including the social areas that become so important in adolescence.
