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AP Biology > Unit 5 > Flashcards

Unit 5 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is genetics?

A

The study of heredity + heredity variation

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2
Q

What is heredity?

A

the transmission of traits from one generation to the next

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3
Q

How are traits passed from parents to offspring?

A

genes

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4
Q

What are genes?

A

segments of DNA that code for basic units of heredity

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5
Q

How do offspring acquire genes from parents?

A

by inheriting chromosomes

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6
Q

What does mean when offspring are clones?

A

offspring are exact copies of parent

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7
Q

What is the only source of variation in asexual reproduction?

A

mutations

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8
Q

How can one produce asexually?

A

through mitosis

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8
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

a pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same length, and same centromere position, that carry the same genetic information

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9
Q

Where do each homologous chromosomes come from?

A

one from mom, one from dad

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9
Q

What are karyotypes?

A

a display of chromosomes pairs ordered by size and length

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10
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Body cells, diploid (two complete sets of each chromosome)

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11
Q

What are gametes cells?

A

Sex Cells, Haploid (one set of each chromosome)

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12
Q

What has DNA that is packaged in chromosomes?

A

Eukaryotes

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13
Q

What are the two types of chromosomes?

A
  • autosomes
  • sex chromosomes
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14
Q

What are autosomes?

A

chromosomes that do not determine sex

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15
Q

How many autosome pairs do humans have?

A

22

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16
Q

What are sex chromosomes?

A

x and y
- eggs : x (humans: 22 + x)
- sperm : x or y (humans: 22+x, 22+y)

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17
Q

What is a life cycle?

A

sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism from conception to its own reproduction

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18
Q

What alternates in sexual life cycles?

A

fertilization and meiosis

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19
Q

What is fertilization?

A

when a sperm cell (haploid) fuses with an egg (haploid) to form a zygote (diploid)

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20
Q

Do all sexually reproducing organisms have both types of chromosomes?

A

yes

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21
Q

What is meiosis?

A

a process that creates haploid gamete cells in sexually reproducing diploid organisms

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22
Q

Compared to a parent cell, how many chromosomes will a daughter cell have after meiosis?

A

half

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23
Q

What does meiosis produce?

A

sperm and eggs that are haploid

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24
Q

What are the two rounds of division that are involved in meiosis?

A
  • meiosis 1
  • meiosis 2
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25
Q

Where does mitosis occur?

A

in somatic cells

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26
Q

How many divisions are involved in mitosis?

A

1

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27
Q

What is the result of mitosis?

A

2 diploid daughter cells

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28
Q

What is significant about the daughter cells that came from mitosis?

A

they are genetically identical

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29
Q

What does meiosis form?

A

gametes (sperm + eggs)

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30
Q

How many divisions are involved in meiosis?

A

2

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31
Q

What is the result of meiosis?

A

4 haploid daughter cells

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32
Q

What is significant about the daughter cells that come from meiosis?

A

they are genetically unique

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33
Q

What are the 3 key events of meiosis?

A

1) Prophase 1
2) Metaphase 1
3) Anaphase 1

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34
Q

What happens in prophase 1 of meiosis?

A

synapsis + crossing over

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35
Q

What happens in metaphase 1 of meiosis?

A

tetrads (homologous pairs) line up at the metaphase plate

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36
Q

What happens in anaphase 1 of meiosis?

A

homologous pair separate

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37
Q

What happens in interphase of meiosis 1?

A

cells go through G1, S (DNA is copied), and G2

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38
Q

What does synapsis mean in prophase 1?

A

Homologous chromosomes pair up and physically connect to each other forming a tetrad

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39
Q

Where does crossing over occur in prophase 1?

A

at the chiasmata

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40
Q

What happens during crossing over in prophase 1?

A

DNA is exchanged between the homologous pairs

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41
Q

What does each chromatid that is produced from crossing over have?

A

a unique combination of DNA

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42
Q

What happens in Metaphase 1?

A

independent orientation: tetrads line up at the metaphase plate

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43
Q

What happens in anaphase 1?

A

pairs of homologous chromosomes separate
- sister chromatids are still attached

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44
Q

What happens in telophase 1 and cytokinesis?

A
  • nuclei + cytoplasm divide
  • after that there is a haploid set of chromosomes in each daughter cell
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45
Q

What happens in prophase 2?

A
  • no crossing over
  • spindle forms
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46
Q

What happens in metaphase 2?

A
  • chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
  • because of crossing over in meiosis 1, the chromatids are unique
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47
Q

What happens in Anaphase 2?

A

sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles

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48
Q

What happens in telophase 2 and cytokinesis?

A
  • 4 haploid cells
  • nuclei reappears
  • each daughter cell is genetically unique
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49
Q

What is the equation for a parent cell in early meiosis 1?

A

2n=4

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50
Q

What is the equation for each daughter cell at the end of telophase 2 and cytokinesis?

A

n = 2

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51
Q

How does crossing over lead to genetic variation?

A

produces recombinant chromosomes : they exchange genetic materials

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52
Q

How does independent assortment of chromosomes lead to genetic variation?

A

chromosomes are randomly oriented along the metaphase plate during metaphase

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53
Q

How does random fertilization lead to genetic variation?

A

any sperm can fertilize any egg

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54
Q

What ensures genetic diversity in sexual reproducing organisms?

A

meiosis followed by fertilization

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55
Q

What provides genetic information that plays a role in natural selection?

A

meiosis followed by fertilization

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56
Q

What is meiosis driven by?

A

subcellular components

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57
Q

What is free energy used for in meiosis?

A

growth and reproduction of living systems

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58
Q

What carries genetic information?

A

DNA + RNA

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59
Q

What shares the genetic code?

A

all living systems

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60
Q

What is true breeding?

A

organisms that produce offspring of the same variety over many generations of self pollination

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61
Q

What is the P generation?

A

true breeding parental generation

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62
Q

What is the F1 generation?

A

(first filial) hybrid offspring of P generation

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63
Q

What is the F2 generation?

A

(second filial) offspring of the F1 generation

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64
Q

What is a punnett square?

A

diagrams used to predict the allele combinations of offspring from a cross with known genetics compositions

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65
Q

What do capital letter mean in punnett square?

A

dominant traits

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66
Q

What do lower case letter mean in punnett square?

A

recessive traits

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67
Q

What does homozygous mean?

A

an organism that has a pair of identical alleles for a character

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68
Q

What does heterozygous mean?

A

an organism that has two different alleles for a gene

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69
Q

What is genotype?

A

the genetic makeup (allele) of an organism

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70
Q

What is phenotype?

A

an organisms appearance, which is determined by the genotype

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71
Q

What do testcrosses help determine?

A

if the dominant trait is homozygous dominant or heterozygous

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72
Q

What are the two fundamental principals of heredity founded by mendel?

A

1) the law of segregation
2) the law of independent assortment

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73
Q

What are alleles?

A

alternative versions of a gene

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74
Q

What are monohybrid crosses?

A

a cross between the F1 Hybrids

75
Q

What is the law of independent assortment?

A

genes for one trait are not inherited with genes of another trait

76
Q

What does the law of independent assortment apply to?

A

1) genes that are located on different chromosomes (not homologous)
2) genes that are very far apart on the same chromosome

77
Q

What is dihybrid cross?

A

a cross between F1 dihybrids

78
Q

What is meant by the term “true breeding”?

A

a true breeding plant or animal is one that will always pass down a specific phenotype trait

79
Q

Differentiate between the P, F1, and F2 generation

A

P: parental generation
F1: first filial, offspring of the parental generation
F2: second filial, offspring of the F1 generation

80
Q

What is the difference between an organism’s genotype and an organism’s phenotype?

A
  • an organisms genotype is its genetic makeup
  • an organisms phenotype is the appearance, which is determined by phenotype
81
Q

What is stated by the laws of segregation and independent assortment?

A
  • law of segregation states that the two allele for the same trait separate during gamete formation and end up in different gamete
  • law of independent assortment states that genes for one trait are not inherited with genes of another trait
82
Q

What do the laws of segregation and independent assortment reflect?

A

rules of probability

83
Q

What is the multiplication rule?

A

the probability that two or more independent event will occur together in some specific combination?

84
Q

What is the addition rule?

A

the probability that two or more mutually exclusive events will occur

85
Q

What pedigrees?

A

family trees that give a visual of inheritance patterns of particular traits

86
Q

What does a square represent in pedigrees?

A

male

87
Q

What does a circle represent in pedigrees?

A

female

88
Q

What does a horizontal line connect in pedigrees?

A

parents

89
Q

What does a vertical line connect in pedigrees?

A

children

90
Q

Do dominant traits ever skip a generation?

A

no

91
Q

What does it mean if a trait is X-linked, in regards to males and females?

A

males are more commonly affected than females

92
Q

Why do many traits not follow the ratios predicted by Mendel’s laws?

A
  • varying degrees of dominance
  • may have multiple genes acting together
  • traits may be determined by genes on sex chromosomes
  • genes may be adjacent or close to one another on the same chromosome and will segregate as a unit
  • some traits may be the result of non nuclear inheritance
93
Q

True or false: alleles can show varying degrees of dominance

A

true

94
Q

What type of dominance did the traits in Mendel’s experiments have?

A

complete dominance

95
Q

true or false: homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals are phenotypically the same

A

true

96
Q

What is incomplete dominance?

A

when neither allele is fully dominant

97
Q

What makes up the phenotype of the F1 generation?

A

a mix of those of the parental generation

98
Q

What is codominance?

A

when two alleles that affect phenotype are both expressed

99
Q

What are multiple alleles?

A

genes that exist in forms with more than two alleles

100
Q

In most cases, how many genes are responsible in determining phenotypes?

A

two or more

101
Q

What is epistasis?

A

the phenotypic expression of a gene at one locus affects a gene at another locus

102
Q

What is polygenic inheritance?

A

the effect of two or more genes acting on a single phenotype

103
Q

What is a sex linked gene?

A

a gene located on either the X or Y chromosome

104
Q

What are Y linked genes?

A

genes specifically found on the Y chromosome

105
Q

What are X linked genes?

A

genes found on the X chromosome

106
Q

To whom can fathers pass x linked alleles down to?

A

all of their daughters, but none of their sons

107
Q

To whom can mothers pass down x linked alleles down to?

A

both daughters and sons

108
Q

In females, what happens if an x linked trait is due to a recessive allele?

A

females will only express the trait if they are homozygous

109
Q

In males, what happens if an x linked trait is due to a recessive allele?

A

because males only have one x chromosome, they will express the trait if they inherit it from their mother
- they are called hemizygous
- due to this males are much more likely to have an x linked disorder

110
Q

What is Duchenne muscular dystrophy?

A

progressive weakening of muscles

111
Q

What type of disorder is Duchenne muscular dystrophy?

A

x linked disorder

112
Q

What is hemophilia?

A

inability to properly clot blood

113
Q

What type of disorder is hemophilia?

A

inability to properly clot blood

114
Q

What is color blindness?

A

inability to correctly see colors

115
Q

What type of disorder is color blindness?

A

x linked disorder

116
Q

How many x chromosomes do females inherit compared to males?

A

two x chromosomes, which is double than males

117
Q

What happens to most x chromosomes in each cell during development?

A

becomes inactive

118
Q

During development, what does the inactive x chromosome in each cell of a female do?

A

condenses into a Barr body

119
Q

What does the x chromosome condensing to a barr body help regulate?

A

gene dosage in females

120
Q

What is genetic recombination?

A

production of offspring with a new combination of genes from parents

121
Q

What is parental types?

A

offspring with the parental phenotype

122
Q

What is recombinants?

A

offspring with phenotypes that are different from the parents

123
Q

What are linked genes?

A

genes located near each other on the same chromosomes that tend to be inherited together

124
Q

What is meiosis and random fertilization generate genetic variation in offspring due to?

A
  • independent assortment of chromosome
  • crossing over in meiosis I
  • any sperm can fertilize any egg
125
Q

When do linked genes show parental phenotypes?

A

in offspring at higher than 50%

126
Q

What happens during crossing over?

A

chromosomes from one paternal chromatid and one maternal chromatid exchange corresponding segments

126
Q

When will you have a higher probability that a crossing over event will occur between genes?

A

the further apart two genes are on the same chromosome

126
Q

What does it mean for the recombination frequency if two genes on the same chromosome are further apart?

A

it will be higher

126
Q

What is a linkage map?

A

a genetic map that is based on recombination frequencies

127
Q

What are map units?

A

the distance between genes

128
Q

What is one map unit equivalent to?

A

a 1% recombination frequency

129
Q

T or F : some traits are located on DNA found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts

A

True

130
Q

How are both chloroplasts and mitochondria assorted to gametes and daughter cells?

A

randomly

131
Q

In animals, how are mitochondria transmitted?

A

by the egg NOT the sperm

132
Q

In plants, how are mitochondria and chloroplasts transmitted?

A

in the ovule NOT the pollen

133
Q

How are all mitochondrial DNA in animals inherited?

A

maternally

134
Q

How are both mitochondrial and chloroplast determined traits inherited in plants?

A

maternally

135
Q

What is a Chi square?

A

a form of statistical analysis used to compare the actual result (observed) with the expected results

136
Q

What do Chi squares help determine?

A
  • whether the data obtained experimentally provides a “good fit” to the expected data
  • if any deviations from the expected results are due to random chance alone or to other circumstances
137
Q

What is the chi square designed to analyze?

A

categorical data

138
Q

What are observed (actual) values?

A

the numbers you get in your data (usually no calculations)

139
Q

What are expected values?

A

based on probability (need to do calculations)

140
Q

What is step one of a chi square?

A

determine what your expected and observed values are

141
Q

What is step two of a chi square?

A

make a table

142
Q

What is step three of a chi square?

A

plug in your data to the table and solve

143
Q

What is step four of a chi square?

A

determine the degrees of freedom of your experiment

144
Q

What must you do with X squared?

A

you must determine the probability that the difference between the observed and expected values occurred simply by chance

145
Q

What is the equation for degrees of freedom?

A

number of categories - 1

146
Q

How do you interpret the results if 2 squared is greater than the critical value?

A

there is a statistically significant difference between the actual and expected values

147
Q

How do you interpret the results if 2 squared is less than the critical value?

A

there is NOT a statistically significant difference between the actual and expected values (accept null hypothesis)

148
Q

What row should you look at on the degree of freedom chi square table unless instructed otherwise?

A

p=0.05

149
Q

T or F : various environmental factors can influence gene expression and lead to phenotypic plasticity

A

True

150
Q

What do individuals with the same genotype exhibit in different environments?

A

different phenotypes but does not change gene

151
Q

What can be linked to affected or mutated alleles or chromosomal changes?

A

genetic disorders

152
Q

What is tay sachs disease?

A
  • autosomal recessive disease
  • mutated HEXA gene (the body fails to produce an enzyme that breaks down a particular fluid)
  • affects central nervous system and results in blindness
153
Q

What is sickle cell anemia?

A
  • autosomal recessive disease
    -mutated HBB gene (sickled cells contain abnormal hemoglobin molecules)
154
Q

What is nondisjunction?

A

when chromosomes fail to separate properly in meiosis I or meiosis II

155
Q

What can detect nondisjunction?

A

karyotyping

156
Q

How are traits passed from parents to offspring?

A

through genes

157
Q

Where does mitosis occur?

A

in somatic cells

158
Q

What are the big ideas of mitosis?

A

1 division, results in 2 diploid daughter cells, and daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cells

159
Q

What are the big ideas of both mitosis and meiosis?

A

both are processes of cell division, they use the same steps for cell division, synthesis of DNA occurs in both

160
Q

What are the big ideas of meiosis?

A

forms gametes, 2 divisions, results in 4 haploid daughter cells, each daughter cell is genetically unique

161
Q

What kind of cells does meiosis form?

A

haploid sex cells (during fertilization, a sperm cell will fertilize an egg to create a 2n zygote)

162
Q

What is the haploid number of the sex cells that meiosis forms?

A

n=12

163
Q

How many cells does meiosis start and end with?

A

starts with 1 and ends with 4

164
Q

How many chromosomes do the diploid cells from meiosis have?

A

4

165
Q

What are the key events in meiosis?

A

prophase I, metaphase I, and anaphase I

166
Q

Where do crossing over events occur?

A

between homologous chromosomes

167
Q

What does the exchange of genetic information (crossing over) create?

A

recombinant chromosomes that are unique from the parent cell’s DNA

168
Q

What leads to genetic variation?

A
  • crossing over events
  • independent assortment of chromosomes
  • random fertilization
169
Q

What does the independent assortment of chromosomes mean?

A

chromosomes can orient with either the paternal or maternal chromosomes closer to a certain pole

170
Q

What does random fertilization mean?

A

any sperm can fertilize any egg

171
Q

T or F : in sexual reproduction there isn’t genetic variation

A

False, in sexual reproduction there is a vast amount of genetic variation

172
Q

What are offspring that are produced in asexual reproduction?

A

clones (identical to their parent, unless mutation occurred)

173
Q

What could have happened if Mendel did not study pea plants?

A

He may not have created the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment

174
Q

Describe how a test cross can be used to determine whether a dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous?

A

by reviewing the offspring and their phenotypes, if any of the offspring show the recessive phenotype, then it can be assumed that the parent with the dominant allele is heterozygous

175
Q

Differentiate between the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment?

A

Law of segregation states that two alleles for the same trait separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes
Law of independent assortment says the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another

176
Q

What type of cross would give a 3:1 ratio?

A

A monohybrid cross

177
Q

What type of cross would give a 9:3:3:1 ratio?

A

A dihybrid cross

178
Q

If a red flower is crossed with a white flower, and the resulting offspring are pink, what is the easiest way to explain these results?

A

Incomplete dominance

179
Q

If a red flower is crossed with a white flower, and the resulting offspring are both red and white, what is the easiest way to explain these results?

A

Codominance

180
Q

Why are there very few Y-linked disorders?

A

The Y chromosome is very small and contains little genetic information compared to the X chromosome

181
Q

True or False, If an x-linked trait is due to a recessive allele, females will only express the trait if they are heterozygous.

A

False, homozygous

182
Q

If a trait is inherited that is on mitochondrial DNA, did the trait come from mom or dad?

A

Mom, mitochondrial DNA is inherited through the egg in animals and the ovule in plants

183
Q

Describe the possible ways that gametes can be formed with an incorrect number of chromosomes?

A
  • Nondisjunction-occurrence
  • Deletion
  • Inversion
  • Translocation
184
Q

Whose the smartest person in this class?

A

Emmy

AP Biology (4 decks)

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