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AP Biology > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is critical for the function and survival of cells?

A

cell to cell communication

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2
Q

What is cell to cell communication responsible for?

A

growth and development of multicellular organisms

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3
Q

What are the three general ways cells communicate?

A

1) direct contact
2) local signaling
3) long distance signaling

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4
Q

What is direct contact?

A

communication through cell junctions

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5
Q

How do animal cells use direct contact?

A

gap junctions

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6
Q

How do plant cells use direct contact?

A

plasmodesmata

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7
Q

What can pass freely between adjacent cells?

A

signaling substances and other material dissolved in the cytoplasm

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8
Q

What are local regulators?

A

chemical messengers (local regulator/ligands) that travel short distance through the exocellular fluid

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9
Q

What do chemical messages cause?

A

a response in a target cell

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10
Q

What are examples of local regulators?

A

paracrine signaling & synaptic signaling

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11
Q

What is paracrine signaling?

A

secretory cells release local regulator via exocytosis to an adjacent cell

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12
Q

What is synaptic signaling?

A

occurs in animal nervous systems; neurons secrete neurotransmitters (these diffuse across the synaptic cleft)

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13
Q

What is synaptic cleft?

A

space between the nerve cell & target cell

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14
Q

What do animals and plants use for long distance signaling?

A

hormones

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15
Q

How do plants use long distance signaling?

A

release hormones that travel in the plant vascular tissue (xylem & phloem) or through the air to reach target tissues

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16
Q

How do animals use long distance signaling?

A

use endocrine signaling ; specialized cells release hormones into the circulatory system where they reach target cells

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17
Q

What type of communication involves a cell secreting a substance to an adjacent target cell?

A

paracrine signaling

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18
Q

What structures do plant cells use in direct contact to diffuse substances?

A

plasmodesmata

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19
Q

What three stages can cell to cell messages be divided into?

A

Reception, Transduction, Response

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20
Q

What is reception (stage 1)?

A

the detection and receiving of a ligand by a receptor in the target cell

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21
Q

What is a receptor?

A

macromolecule that binds to a signal molecule (ligand)

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22
Q

How specific is the binding between ligand and receptors?

A

highly specific

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23
Q

What happens to the receptor when a ligand binds to it?

A

receptor activates

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24
Q

What causes the receptor to activate?

A

conformational change

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25
Q

What does activation allow the receptor to do?

A

allows the receptor to interact with other cellular molecules

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26
Q

What does interaction with other cellular molecules initiate?

A

transduction signal

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27
Q

Where can receptors be found?

A

in the plasma membrane or intracellular

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28
Q

What is the most common type of receptor involved in signal pathways?

A

plasma membrane receptors

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29
Q

What kind of ligands do plasma membrane receptors bind to?

A

polar, water soluble, large

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30
Q

What are examples of plasma membrane receptors?

A
  • G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
  • ligand gated ion channels
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31
Q

Where are intracellular receptors found?

A

in the cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells

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32
Q

What kind of ligands do intracellular receptors bind to?

A

ligands that can pass through the plasma membrane

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33
Q

What is an example of intracellular receptors?

A
  • hydrophobic molecules
    ( steriod + thyroid hormones, gases like nitric oxide)
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34
Q

What is transduction?

A

the conversion of an extracellular signal to an intracellular signal that will bring about a cellular response

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35
Q

What does transduction require?

A

a sequence of changes in a series of molecules known as a signal transduction pathway

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36
Q

What is a signal transduction pathway?

A

a sequence of changes in a series of molecules

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37
Q

What does the signal transduction pathway regulate?

A

protein activity

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38
Q

How does the signal transduction pathway regulate protein activity?

A
  • phosphorylation by the enzyme protein kinase (relays signal inside cell)
  • dephosphorylation by the enzyme protein phosphatase (shuts off pathways)
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39
Q

What happens to signals during transduction?

A

it is amplified

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40
Q

What are second messengers?

A

small, non protein molecules and ions help relay the message and amplify the response

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41
Q

What is an example of a second messenger?

A

cyclic AMP (cAMP)

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42
Q

What does it mean if there is a change in shape?

A

a change in function

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43
Q

What happens during response (stage 3)?

A

the final molecule in the signaling pathway converts the signal to a response that will alter a cellular response

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44
Q

What are three examples of response?

A
  • protein that can alter membrane permeability
  • enzyme that will change a metabolic process
  • protein that turns genes on or off
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45
Q

What are the three stages of cell signaling?

A

reception, transduction, response

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46
Q

What is the actual signal being transduced in a signal transduction pathway?

A

a ligand

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47
Q

How is a signal passed from outside to inside the cell?

A

through transduction; during transduction the signal is relayed by protein kinases and amplified by second messengers

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48
Q

What can signal transduction pathways influence?

A

how a cell responds to its environment

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49
Q

What can signal transduction pathways result in?

A

gene expression + cell function
( can alter phenotype or result in cell death)

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50
Q

What causes a change to the transduction of the signal?

A

mutations to receptor proteins or to any component of the signaling pathway

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51
Q

What are the three main ways that cells communicate?

A

direct contact, local signaling, long distance signaling

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52
Q

What does it mean when ligand receptor binding is highly specific?

A
  • all receptors have an area that interacts with a ligand and only ligands specific to the receptors can bind to these areas, meaning not every ligand can bind to a receptor
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53
Q

What is the difference between direct contact communication in animal cells and plant cell?

A
  • animal cells use gab junctions
  • plant cells use plasmodesmata
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54
Q

What happens in the first stage of cell signaling?

A

a ligand binds to a receptor which can either be in the plasma membrane or intracellular

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55
Q

What happens in the second stage of cell signaling?

A

the signal is converted and it will bring about a cellular response

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56
Q

What is protein kinase?

A

an enzyme that relays signals inside of the cell ; it does this by phosphorylating various molecules

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57
Q

What is protein Phosphatase?

A

an enzyme that can shut off signaling pathways by dephorylating molecules

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58
Q

What happens in the third stage of cell signaling?

A

the final molecule in the signaling pathway will convert the signal to a response that will alter a cellular process

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59
Q

What are the two main categories of cell membrane receptors in eukaryotic organisms?

A
  • G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
  • Ion Channels
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60
Q

What is the largest category in cell surface receptors?

A

G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)

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61
Q

What type of system are G protein coupled receptors (GCPRs) important in?

A

animal sensory systems

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62
Q

What do G protein coupled receptors (GCPRs) bind to?

A

binds to a G protein that can bind to GTP, which is an energy molecule similar to ATP

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63
Q

When do the GPCR, enzyme, and G protein become active?

A

when ligand binding to GPCR on the extracellular side takes place

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64
Q

What does ligand binding cause in GPCRs?

A

the cytomasmic (inside) side to change shape

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65
Q

What happens when the G protein binds to the GPCR?

A

activates the GCPR and the G protein, which causes GDP to become GTP

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66
Q

What does a shape change to the cytomasmic (inside) side allow?

A

the G protein to bind to GPCR

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67
Q

What happens when part of the activated G protein binds to the enzyme?

A
  • activates enzyme
  • amplifies signal and leads to a cellular response
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68
Q

Where are ligand gated ion channels located?

A

in the plasma membrane

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69
Q

What system are ligand gated ion channels important in?

A

nervous system

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70
Q

What happens in ligand gated ion channels?

A
  • receptors act as a gate for ions
  • when a ligand binds to the receptor, the gate opens or closes allowing the diffusion of specific ions
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71
Q

What can ligand gated ion channels initiate?

A

a series of events that lead to a cellular response

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72
Q

What must the body be able to monitor at all times?

A

internal conditions

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73
Q

What are set points?

A

values for various physiological conditions that the body tries to maintain
(ex. the set point for your body temp is 98.6 degrees F)

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74
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

the state of relatively stable internal conditions
( think : balance)

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75
Q

How does the body maintain homeostasis?

A

through feedback loops

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76
Q

What are the two types of feedback loops?

A

negative & positive

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77
Q

What is a stimulus?

A

a variable that will cause a response

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78
Q

What is a receptor/sensor?

A

sensory organs that detect a stimulus; this information is sent to the control center (brain)

79
Q

What is an effector?

A

muscle or gland that will respond

80
Q

What is a response?

A

changes (decreases or increases) the effect of the stimulus

81
Q

What is the most common feedback mechanism?

A

negative feedback

82
Q

What does negative feedback do?

A

reduces the effect of the stimulus

83
Q

What does positive feedback do?

A

increases the effect of a stimulus

84
Q

What is a disease?

A

when the body is unable to maintain homeostasis

85
Q

What must happen in order to maintain homeostasis?

A

the cells in a multicellular organism must be able to communicate

86
Q

How do cells communicate?

A

through signal transduction pathways

87
Q

What process is an integral part of life?

A

cell division process

88
Q

What does cell division allow?

A

the reproduction of cells, growth of cells, and tissue repair

89
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

the life of a cell from its formation until it divides

90
Q

What must cells do before division?

A

organize and package their DNA

91
Q

How are nucleosomes formed?

A

DNA associates with and wraps around proteins known as histones

92
Q

What are histones?

A

the proteins that DNA associates with and wraps around

93
Q

What do strings of nucleosomes form?

A

chromatin

94
Q

When is a chromatin in a non condensed form?

A

when a cell is not actively dividing

95
Q

When does a chromatin condense to form a chromosome?

A

after DNA replication

96
Q

What forms a chromosome?

A

when a chromatin condenses

97
Q

Why are chromosomes densely packed?

A

to allow for easier division

98
Q

What does it mean for chromosomes when DNA is replicated?

A

each chromosome has a duplicated copy

99
Q

How is a sister chromatid formed?

A

the duplicated copy of a chromosomes joint together

100
Q

What is a centromere?

A

the region on each sister chromatid where they are most closely attached

101
Q

What are kinetochore?

A

proteins attached to the centromere that link each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle

102
Q

What is genome?

A

all of a cell’s genetic information (DNA)

103
Q

What are prokaryotes?

A

singular, circular DNA

104
Q

What are eukaryotes?

A

one or more linear chromosomes

105
Q

What does every eukaryote have?

A

a specific number of chromosomes

106
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

two chromosomes ( one form mom and one from dad) that are the same length, have the same centromere position, and carry genes controlling the same characteristics

107
Q

What are Somatic Cells?

A
  • Body Cells
  • Diploid (2n): two sets of chromosomes, one set from each parent
108
Q

How do somatic cells divide?

A

mitosis

109
Q

How many somatic cells do humans have?

A

46

110
Q

What are gametes?

A
  • reproductive cells (eggs/sperm)
  • haploid (n): one set of chromosomes
111
Q

How do gametes divide?

A

meiosis

112
Q

How many gametes do humans have?

A

23

113
Q

What does the cell cycle consists of?

A

altering phases of interphase and mitosis

114
Q

What are the three stages of interphase?

A
  • G1 “first gap” phase
  • S “synthesis” phase
  • G2 “second gap” phase
115
Q

What is the longest portion of the cell cycle?

A

interphase (90%)

116
Q

What happens in G1 “first gap” phase of interphase?

A

the cell grows and carries out normal functions

117
Q

What happens in S “synthesis” phase of interphase?

A

DNA replication and chromosome duplication occurs

118
Q

What happens in G2 “second gap” phase of interphase?

A

Final growth and preparation for mitosis

119
Q

What happens in mitosis of M phase?

A

nucleus divide

120
Q

What happens in cytokinesis of M phase?

A

cytoplasm divide

121
Q

What does mitosis result in?

A

2 identical diploid daughter cells

122
Q

What are the 5 stages of mitosis?

A

1) Prophase
2) Prometaphase
3) Metaphase
4) Anaphase
5) Telophase + Cytokinesis

123
Q

What are the key events of prophase?

A
  • chromatin condenses
  • nucleoli disappear
  • duplicated chromosomes appear as sister chromatids
  • mitotic spindle begins to form
  • centrosomes move away from each other
124
Q

What are the key events of prometaphase?

A
  • nuclear envelope fragments
  • mircrotubules enter nuclear area + some attach to kinetochores
125
Q

What are the key events of metaphase?

A
  • centrosomes are at opposite poles
  • chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate
  • microtubules are attached to each kinetochore
126
Q

What are the key events of anaphase?

A
  • sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of the cell due to the microtubules shortening
  • cell elongated
127
Q

What are the key events of telophase and cytokinesis?

A
  • two daughter nuclei form
  • nucleoli reappear
  • chromosomes become less condensed
128
Q

In animals what happens when cytokinesis occurs?

A

a cleavage furrow appears due to contractile ring of actin filaments

129
Q

In plants what happens when cytokinesis occurs?

A

vesicles produced by the golgi travel to the middle of the cell and form a cell plate

130
Q

What is eukaryotic chromatin composed of?

A

DNA and Proteins

131
Q

What proteins are responsible for holding the sister chromatids together?

A

cohesins

132
Q

DNA is copied in which phase of the cell cycle?

A

S phase

133
Q

Why does DNA being copied form sister chromatids?

A

each duplicated copy is joined together by cohesins

134
Q

Which cell type undergoes mitosis?

A

somatic cells

135
Q

Define Haploid (n)

A

a cell containing one set of chromosomes

136
Q

Define Diploid (2n)

A

a cell containing two sets of chromosomes, one from mom and one from dad

137
Q

What is the haploid number for humans?

A

n = 23

138
Q

What is the diploid number for humans?

A

2n = 46

139
Q

What are cell checkpoints?

A

control points that regulate the cell cycle

140
Q

Where are checkpoints located?

A

all throughout the cell

141
Q

What type of signals do checkpoints release?

A

stop + go

142
Q

What is the most important checkpoint?

A

G1 checkpoint

143
Q

What does the G1 checkpoint do?

A

checks for cell size, growth factors, and DNA damage

144
Q

What happens after a “go” signal in the G1 checkpoint?

A

cell completes the wholes cell cycle

145
Q

What happens after a “stop” signal in the G1 checkpoint?

A

cell enters a nondividing (quiescent) state known as G(0) phase

146
Q

What happens to cells in the G(0) phase?

A

some cells stay in G(0) forever (muscle/nerve cells), while some cells can be called back into the cell cycle

147
Q

What does the G2 checkpoint do?

A

checks for completion of DNA replication and DNA damage

148
Q

What happens after a “go” signal at the G2 checkpoint?

A

cell proceeds to mitosis

149
Q

What happens after a “stop” signal at the G2 checkpoint?

A

cell stops and the cell will attempt to repair damage

150
Q

What happens if damage cannot be repaired inside a cell?

A

the cell will undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death)

151
Q

What does the M (spindle) checkpoint do?

A

checks for microtubules attachment to chromosomes at the kinetochores at metaphase

152
Q

What happens after a “go” signal at the M checkpoint?

A

cell proceeds to anaphase and completes mitosis

153
Q

What happens after a “stop” signal at the M checkpoint?

A

cell will pause mitosis to allow for spindles to finish attaching to chromosomes

154
Q

What does regulation of the cell cycle involve?

A

an internal control system

155
Q

What does the internal control system consists of?

A

1) proteins known as cyclins (concentration of cyclins vary, and are synthesized and degraded at specific stages of the cell cycle)
2) enzymes known as cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) (concentration remains constant through each phase of the cell cycle and are active only when its specific cyclin is present)

156
Q

What does each cyclin CDK complex have?

A

a specific regulatory effect

157
Q

What do active CDK complexes phosphorylate?

A

target proteins

158
Q

What does the phosphorylation of target proteins by CDK complexes help regulate?

A

key events in the cell cycle

159
Q

What are growth factors and what does it initiate?

A

hormones released by cells that stimulate cell growth
- can cause signal transduction pathway to be initiated because of CDKs being activated which leads to progression

160
Q

What is Contact (or density) inhibition and what does it initiate?

A

cell surface receptors recognize contact with other cells
- initiates signal transduction pathway that stops the cell cycle G2 phase

161
Q

What is anchorage dependence?

A

cells rely on attachment to other cells or the extracellular matrix to divide

162
Q

How do normal cells become cancerous?

A

through DNA mutation ; changes in DNA

163
Q

What cell follows checkpoints?

A

normal cells

164
Q

How many times do normal cells divide?

A

average: 20-50 times

165
Q

What cell goes through apoptosis when there are errors?

A

normal cells

166
Q

What cell does not follow checkpoints?

A

cancer cells

167
Q

How many times do cancer cells divide?

A

infinitely (considered immortal)

168
Q

What cell evades apoptosis?

A

cancer cells evade apoptosis and continue to divide even if there are errors

169
Q

What happens if there is uncontrollable growth of cancer cells?

A

tumors will grow

170
Q

What is a tumor?

A

a mass of tissue formed by abnormal cells

171
Q

What is a benign tumor?

A
  • cells are abnormal, but not yet considered to be cancerous
  • the cells remain at only the tumor site and are unable to spread elsewhere in the body
172
Q

What is a malignant tumor?

A

mass of cancerous cells that lose their anchorage dependency and can leave the tumor site

173
Q

What is metastasis?

A

when cells separate from the tumor and spread elsewhere in the body

174
Q

Why does smoking cause cancer?

A

nicotine causes mutations in cells at high rates

175
Q

How can eating healthy and drinking water prevent cancer?

A

fatty foods and dehydration can affect the function of cells

176
Q

How can not using sun protection cause cancer?

A

sun is damaging to skin cells and can cause mutations to occur after exposure

177
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: second gap phase

A

G2

178
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: if the cell does not pass this checkpoint it is sent to G0

A

G1

179
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: this checkpoint looks for correct DNA replication

A

G2

180
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: first gap phase

A

G1

181
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: DNA replication

A

S

182
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: initial growth of the cells

A

G1

183
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: the dividing phase

A

M

184
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: this checkpoint looks for spindle fiber formation

A

M

185
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: the final growth phase

A

G2

186
Q

identify the appropriate phase of the cell cycle or checkpoint: if the cell does not pass this checkpoint it may go through apoptosis

A

G2

187
Q

In which phase would the nuclear envelope fragment?

A

prometaphase

188
Q

In which phase would the chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate?

A

metaphase

189
Q

In which phase would two daughter nuclei form?

A

telophase

190
Q

In which phase would chromatin condense and the mitotic spindle begin to form?

A

prophase

191
Q

What is the difference between cytokinesis in animal cells and plant cells?

A

animals: a cleavage furrow appears due to contractile ring
plants: vesicles form a cell plate in middle of the cells

192
Q

What checkpoint looks for cell size and growth factors?

A

G1

193
Q

What happens to a cell that gets stopped at the G1 checkpoint?

A

it will enter a non dividing phase known as GO

AP Biology (4 decks)

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