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BN541 Topic 1 > Unit 5 > Flashcards

Unit 5 Flashcards

1
Q

What is respiration?

A

The exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the external environment.

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2
Q

Other than respiration what are the functions of the respiratory system?

A

1.reguates body pH
2. air conditioning in nasal cavity
3. formation of speech sounds in larynx
4. defends against microbes
(Mucociliary escalator and
Alveolar macrophages)

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3
Q

What is the role of the mucociliary escalator?

A
  • Cilia and mucous epithelium line airway surfaces until end of bronchioles
  • Mucous secreting cells and glands produce mucous
  • Cilia move mucous layer and particles towards pharynx
  • First line of defence
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4
Q

What is the role of the alveolar macrophages?

A
  • Present in alveolus
  • Engulf inhaled particles and bacteria
  • Second line of defence
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5
Q

What are the parts of the upper respiratory tract?

A
  1. Nasal cavity
  2. Pharynx (throat): Common passage for air & food:
    Nasopharynx
    Oropharynx
    Laryngopharynx
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6
Q

What are the parts of the lower respiratory tract?

A
  1. Larynx: Voice box
  2. Trachea:
    Contains series of C-shaped cartilages and smooth muscle (trachealis muscle) to the posterior side.
  3. bronchial tree (bronchi, bronchioles)
  4. alveoli
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7
Q

What are the two divisions of the bronchial tree?

A
  1. Conducting zone
    - trachea
    - bronchi
    - bronchioles
    - terminal bronchioles
  2. Respiratory zone
    - respiratory bronchioles
    - alveolar ducts
    - alveolar sacs
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8
Q
  1. What are bronchioles?

2. What are the two types of bronchioles?

A
  1. Passages smaller than 1mm, walls made of smooth muscle and lack cartilage
  2. terminal bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles
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9
Q

What are alveoli?

A
  • Tiny hollow air sacs (150 million per lung)
  • Sites of gas exchange, so are wrapped in capillaries
  • Ultimate division of respiratory tree
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10
Q

What are the differences between the left an right lung?

A
  1. left lung is smaller and has cardiac notch
  2. right lung has 3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior)
  3. left has 2 lobes (superior and inferior)
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11
Q

What makes up the alveolar capillary membrane/ Respiratory membrane?

A
  1. alveolar epithelium
  2. fused basement membranes of epithelium and capillary endothelium
  3. capillary endothelium
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12
Q

What types of cells are in the alveoli?

A
  1. Type 1 alveolar cells – make up alveolar wall
  2. Type 2 alveolar cells – surfactant producing cells
  3. alveolar macrophages – engulf inhaled particles
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13
Q
  1. What is the role of the pulmonary artery?

2. What is the role of the pulmonary vein?

A
  1. Artery takes blood from right hand side of the heart to the lungs (deoxygenated)
  2. Vein takes blood from the lungs to the left side of the heart (oxygenated)
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14
Q

What structures are involved in the mechanics of ventilation?

A
  1. The diaphragm
  2. The ribs and intercostal muscles
  3. The pleura/pleural membrane
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15
Q

What is the structure of the diaphragm?

A
  • Made of skeletal muscle
  • Partition between thoracic and abdominal cavity
  • Relaxed shape: dome
  • Contracted shape: Moves inferiorly and flattens
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16
Q

What are the differences between the visceral and parietal pleura?

A

Visceral: covers external lung surface

Parietal: attached to thoracic wall and superior face of diaphragm

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17
Q

What is the structure of the pleura/pleural membrane?

A

• Made up of double layered serous membrane
- visceral pleura
- parietal pleura
• Contains pleural fluid

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18
Q

What is the structure and function of intercostal muscles?

A 
•	Made up of skeletal muscle 
•	Muscles between ribs 
•	External intercostal: 
- superficial & for inspiration
- fibres run towards sternum
•	Internal intercostal: 
- deeper layer & for forced expiration 
- fibres run away from sternum
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19
Q

What is the role of the pleural fluid?

A
  • Acts a lubricant for the lungs to glide easily over e thoracic wall during breathing
  • Surface tension of fluid between visceral and parietal pleura hold the layers together
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20
Q

What is the process of inspiration (the breathing kind, not the motivating kind)

A
  1. contraction of external intercostal muscles collectively moves ribs up and out
  2. contraction of diaphragm = flattening of diaphragm

Combined effect of muscle actions results in increase in the volume of thoracic cavity

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21
Q

What is the process of expiration?

A
  1. relaxation of external intercostal muscles collectively moves ribs in and down
  2. relaxation of diaphragm = back to dome shape

Combined action of muscles results in decrease in volume of thoracic cavity

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22
Q

What is Boyles law?

A

At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume
i.e., When volume increases pressure decreases and vice versa

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23
Q

How is Boyles law related to breathing?

A

Inspiration: Volume of thoracic cavity increases thus deceasing the pressure => Air moves inside due to low pressure inside
-Expiration: Volume of thoracic cavity decreases thus increasing the pressure => Air moves outside due to low pressure outside

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24
Q

What is the direction of movement of oxygen in the lungs?

In the tissues?

A
  • In the lungs the direction of movement (diffusion) of oxygen is from alveoli to capillaries
  • In the tissues the direction of movement of oxygen is from capillaries to cells
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25
Q

What is the partial pressure of a gas?

A

Partial pressure is the measure of the concentration of a gas in a mixture

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26
Q

What 2 things must have for diffusion to occur?

A

Condition 1: Gases must be in the dissolved state

Condition 2: Appropriate concentration gradients must be present.

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27
Q

What is the direction of movement of carbon dioxide in the lungs?

In the tissues?

A
  • The direction of movement of carbon dioxide is from capillaries to alveoli
  • The direction of movement of carbon dioxide is from cells to capillaries
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28
Q

What % of oxygen is dissolved in plasma and what % is combined with haemoglobin?

A
  • 1.5% is dissolved in plasma (oxygen is not very soluble in water)
  • 98.5% is chemically combined with haemoglobin

(possibly 3% and 97%????)

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29
Q

What are the two forms of iron in relation to haemoglobin?

A

Fe2+ = Ferrous and Fe3+ = Ferric (oxidized form)

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30
Q

How does oxygen bind to haemoglobin?

A
  • O2 binds with iron in haemoglobin
  • forms oxyhaemoglobin at high partial pressures (alveolar capillaries) and releases O2 at low partial pressures to go back to haemoglobin (tissues)
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31
Q

What 3 ways is carbon dioxide carried in the blood?

A
  1. 7% carried dissolved in plasma
  2. 23% carried chemically combined with haemoglobin (carbaminohaemoglobin)
  3. 70% is transported in the blood in the from of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
32
Q

What is the process of CO2 being carried via bicarbonate ions?

A
  • CO2 combines with H20 in RBCs to form carbonic acid which dissociates to form hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions
  • carbonic anhydrase catalyses the carbonic acid formation
  • HCO3- diffuses out of RBCs into plasma and carried to lungs
  • when HCO3- reaches lungs where CO2 concentration is low, CO2 and H2O are reformed an CO2 is exhaled in gas form.
33
Q

How does low blood pH affect the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve?

A
  • Shifts the curve right
  • decreases Hb affinity for O2, increasing O2 release
  • binding is difficult and needs higher partial pressure to achieve saturation
34
Q

How does high blood pH affect the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve?

A
  • shifts curve left
  • increased Hb affinity to O2, decreasing release
  • O2 binds easily, requires lower partial pressure to achieve saturation
35
Q

How does low temperature affect the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve?

A
  • curve shifts left
  • increased Hb affinity to O2, decreasing release
  • O2 binds easily, requires lower partial pressure to achieve saturation
36
Q

How does high temperature affect the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve?

A
  • Shifts the curve right
  • decreases Hb affinity for O2, increasing O2 release
  • binding is difficult and needs higher partial pressure to achieve saturation
37
Q

what are the 2 parts of the medullary respiratory centre?

A
  1. Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

2. Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)

38
Q

How does the respiratory centre control respiration?

A
  • centre is in the medulla of the brain stem
  • sends impulses down spinal cord
  • then via phrenic nerve to diaphragm
  • via intercostal nerve to intercostal muscles
39
Q

What are the 2 types of neurons within the ventral respiratory group?

A
  • Inspiratory neurons (active process)– Active 2 secs. Nerve impulses travel via phrenic and intercostal nerves to muscles of inspiration causing contraction
  • Expiratory neurons – active 3 secs. Occurs passively after inspiration and relaxation of muscles
40
Q

What is the role of the dorsal respiratory group?

A

integrates input from stretch receptors and chemoreceptors and communicate to VRG

41
Q

What is the role of the Pontine Respiratory Centre

A
  • interacts with medullary respirator centres for a smooth pattern of breathing during sleep, vocalisation, exercise etc
42
Q

What are the 2 nerves that send impulses to respiratory muscles?

A
  • Phrenic nerve – runs straight to the diaphragm

- Intercostal nerve – goes down the spine and then out the intercostal muscle

43
Q

How does the CO2 content of blood affect respiration rate?

A

-A direct relationship exists.
Increase in CO2 = increase in respiratory rate.
- It is the acidity caused by the CO2 that influences the Respiratory centre.
- Changes detected by central chemoreceptors in brainstem
- ENORMOUS increases in CO2 have an anaesthetic like effect and wipe out the Respiratory centre.

44
Q

What are 6 lesser factors that can influence respiration rate?

A
  1. movement of muscles and joints
  2. temperature
  3. pain
  4. irritation of passages
  5. drugs
  6. hormones
45
Q

What are the 5 main factors influencing respiration rate?

A
  1. Carbon dioxide content of the blood
  2. Oxygen content in the blood
  3. Blood pressure
  4. Hering-Breuer reflex
  5. Higher centres of the brain
46
Q

How does blood pressure affect respiration rate?

A
  • Inverse relationship exists:
    Increase in O2 = decrease in resp rate.
  • O2 produces effect through peripheral chemoreceptors located in carotid and aortic bodies.
  • ENORMOUS decreases in pO2 lead to general inhibition of the brain.
47
Q

How are impulses transmitted from aortic and carotid bodies?

A
  • Impulses from aortic bodies sent to the resp centre via the vagus nerve.
  • Impulses from carotid bodies carried via the glossopharyngeal nerve
  • carotid and aortic bodies also respond to increases in hydrogen (H+) ion concentration (decreased pH) and increases in pCO2
48
Q

How does the oxygen content in the blood affect respiration rate?

A
  • An inverse relationship exists:
    increase in blood pressure = decrease in respiratory rate.
  • This works through baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinus.
  • Impulses travel via the vagus and glossopharangeal nerves to the respiratory centre and inhibit the respiratory centre.
49
Q

How does the Hering-Breuer reflex affect respiration rate?

A
  • Pulmonary stretch receptors in the smooth muscles of the airways signal when the lungs are inflated:
  • Prevents over-inflation
  • Signals the end of inspiration
50
Q

How do higher centres in the brain affect respiration rate?

A
  • The cerebrum can send signals to the respiratory centre and can take overall control.
51
Q

How does Hypoxic drive affect respiration rate?

A
  • The respiratory centre won’t respond if carbon dioxide levels drastically increase
  • Then it has to be left to the low oxygen system to stimulate respiration: Hypoxic drive
  • Pure O2 shouldn’t be given to a person when CO2 is very high because it will wipe out their Hypoxic Drive and breathing will stop altogether.
52
Q

Where does the blood get hydrogen ions from?

A
  • Some are derived from carbonic acid (volatile metabolic acid).
  • Some are derived from non-volatile metabolic acids (Fatty acids, lactic acid, phosphoric acid)
53
Q

How do abnormal ventilation levels affect carbonic acid concentrations?

A

Hypoventilation produces an abnormally high pCO2: This lowers the pH and respiratory acidosis occurs.

Hyperventilation produces an abnormally low pCO2: This raises the pH and respiratory alkalosis occurs.

54
Q

What effect does abnormal amounts of Hydrogen ions in the blood have?

A

Metabolic Acidosis occurs when pH drops due to abnormal increase in production of non-volatile metabolic acids or bicarbonate ions are lost during diarrhoea

Metabolic Alkalosis can result when pH increases due to excessive bicarbonate ions in the blood or from loss of acidic gastric juice during vomiting.

55
Q

What are compensation methods?

A
  • Alteration in respiratory component can be partially compensated by a change in metabolic component.
  • Alteration in metabolic component can be compensated by a change in respiratory component.
56
Q

What 2 organs regulate the blood acid-base balance?

A

The lungs regulate the respiratory component

The kidneys regulate the metabolic component

57
Q

What is TV?

What is ERV?

A

TV = tidal volume = volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing

ERV = Expiratory reserve value = extra volume of air that can be exhaled after normal exhalation

58
Q

What is IRV?

what is the VC?

A

IRV = inspiratory reserve volume = extra volume of air that can be inhaled after normal inhalation

VC = Vital capacity = maximum possible volume of air that can be moved into or out of lungs

59
Q

What are the Eustachian tubes?

A

links middle ear to nasal cavity equalises pressure of atmosphere in ear. Weakness = ear infection.

60
Q

What are the Nasolacrimal ducts?

A

connect nasal cavity to tear glands. Weakness are eye infections after a cold.

61
Q

What are the Sinuses?

What are the 4 nasal sinuses?

A

hollow spaces in skull that create lightness. Inner lining is mucous which aids in filtration process. Drainage points can close when pathogens present.

maxillary, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid

62
Q

What makes up the Nasal cavity?

A
  • turbinate’s/conchae: nasal folds x3 (superior, middle, inferior)
  • Meatuses: Grooves below turbinate’s (superior, middle, inferior)
    Both facilitate air conditioning function
63
Q

Where is the pharynx and what are the 3 parts?

A

Connect the nasal cavity to the mouth superiorly and to the larynx and oesophagus inferiorly

Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

64
Q

What is the function and structure of the larynx?

A

Functions: maintain patent airway, route food and air into correct passages, voice production
Structure:
- apart from epiglottis, larynx is made of hyaline cartilage

65
Q

What is the function of the trachea?

A

air passageway, cleans, warms and moistens incoming air

66
Q

What is the structure of the trachea?

A
  • mucosa: goblet cells, mucous epithelium contains mucous producing cells and glands
  • submucosa: connective tissue containing mucous producing glands
  • adventitia: connective tissue reinforced by c-shaped hyaline cartilage)
  • Smooth muscle (trachealis muscle) to the posterior side to accommodate oesophagus
67
Q

What types of cartilage make up the larynx?

A
  • Thyroid cartilage: formed by fusion of two cartilage plates, midline of which is the laryngeal prominence (adams apple)
  • Cricoid cartilage: inferior to thyroid and last cartilage of larynx, ring shaped and superior to trachea
  • Epiglottis: flexible, elastic cartilage
68
Q

What is the structure of the bronchi?

A

walls contain cartilage

  • right and left primary bronchi form by division of trachea and branch into corresponding lung
  • once in lung they branch again (secondary: 3 on right, 2 on left)
  • keep branching, passages smaller than 1mm in diameter = bronchioles
69
Q

What are the 2 types of bronchioles and what is their structure?

A
  1. Terminal bronchioles (conducting zone)
  2. respiratory bronchioles (respiratory zone)
  • lack cartilage, are made up of smooth muscle
70
Q

What are the changes in cartilage structure from trachea – bronchioles?

A
  • cartilage rings are replaced by irregular plates of cartilage
  • by end of bronchioles cartilage is no longer present in tube walls, replaced by elastic fibres.
71
Q

What effect deos uncontrolled diabetes mellitus have on respiration rate?

A

Body rapidly metabolizes lipids and there is an accumulation of acidic by-products of lipid metabolism in the circulatory system causing increase in resp rate

72
Q

What are the changes in muscle from bronchi – bronchioles?

A

the smaller the passageways get, the amount of smooth muscle increases.

73
Q

What are the epithelium changes from trachea-bronchioles?

A

mucosal epithelium thins, cilia get more sparse and mucous producing cells are absent in bronchioles. Debris below bronchioles removed by macrophages not cilia and mucous.

74
Q

What are Central Chemoreceptors in the medulla are sensitive to?

A

decrease in blood pH and increase in blood carbon dioxide content

75
Q

What are peripheral chemoreceptors sensitive to?

A

changes in pH, O2 and CO2 changes in the blood

76
Q

What effect does a decrease in surface area of the respiratory membrane have on the rate of diffusion?

A

decrease in surface area of the respiratory membrane, such as that occurs in emphysema, decreases the rate of diffusion across the membrane

77
Q

What is the major function of the nasal cavity?

A

The nasal cavity functions to humidify, warm, filter, and act as a conduit for inspired air, as well as protect the respiratory tract through the use of the mucociliary system

BN541 Topic 1 (10 decks)

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