Unit 4 Termonology Flashcards
The idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe.
Copernican hypothesis
An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, it’s purpose, and how it functions; it encompassed what we would call the science today.
Natural philosophy
The approach, pioneered by Galileo, that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation.
Experimental method
A law formulated by Galileo that states the motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, then object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force.
Law of inertia
Newton’s law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is probably proportional to the objects quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Law of universal gravitation
A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation.
Empiricism
Descartes’s view that all reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.
Cartesian dualism
The influential intellectual and cultural movement by the late 17th and 18th centuries that introduced a new world view based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress.
Enlightenment
A secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be excepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason.
Rationalism
A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow creatures in the Age of Enlightenment.
Philosophes
The transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal article and communal reading of religious text to society where literacy was commonplace and reading material was broad in diverse.
Reading revolution
Regular social gatherings held by talented and rich Parisian in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature science and philosophy.
Salons
A popular style when you’re out in the 18th century, known for its soft pastels, ordinate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry–eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids.
Rococo
An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues related to society, economics, and politics.
Public sphere
Term coined by historians to describe the rule of 18th century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.
Enlightened absolutism
View that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, this state should use its resources and authority to increase a public good.
Cameralism
The Jewish enlightenment of the second half of the 18th century, led by Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.
Haskalah
The period in Europe from the mid-17th through the mid-19th century during which great agricultural progress was made and the fallow, or idling of the field to replenish nutrients, was gradually eliminated.
Agricultural revolution
The movement to fence in fields in order to farm more effectively, at the expense of poor peasants who relied on common fields for farming and pasture.
Enclosure
The transformation of large numbers of small peasant farmers into landless rural wage earners.
Proletarianization
The stage of industrial development in which rural workers used hand tools in their homes to manufacture goods on a large scale for sale in market.
Cottage industry
The 18th-century system of rule industry in which a merchant loaned raw materials to cottage workers, who processed them and returned the finished products to the merchant.
Putting out system
The shift that occurred as families in northwestern Europe focused on earning wages instead of producing goods for household consumption; this reduced their economic self-sufficiency but increased their ability to purchase consumer goods.
Industrious revolution
The organization of artisanal production into trade based associations, or guilds, each of which received a monopoly over its trade in the right to train apprentices and hire workers.
Guild system
A belief in free-trade and competition based on Adam Smith’s argument that the invisible hand of free competition would benefit all individuals, rich and poor.
Economic liberalism
A series of English laws that controlled the import of goods to Britain and British colonies.
Navigation acts
The treaty that ended the seven years war in Europe and the colonies in 1763 and ratified British victory on all colonial fronts.
Treaty of Paris
A form of serfdom that allowed a planner or rancher to keep his workers or slaves in perpetual debt bondage by periodically advancing food, shelter, and a little money.
Debt Peonage
The forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and another industries; the trade reached its peek in the 18th century and ultimately involved more than 12 million Africans.
Atlantic slave trade
(1473-1543) Polish cleric. as a young man he was drawn to the intellectual and cultural vitality of the Italian Renaissance, studied at the University of krakow. he departed for Italy, where he studied astronomy, medicine, and church law.
Nicholas Copernicus.
Written by Copernicus. For fear of ridicule it wasn’t published until 1543, the year of his death. Wrote about and theorized that the stars and planets, including the earth, revolved around a fixed sun.
The revolutions on the heavenly spheres
And astronomer who agreed with Copernicus’s theory. born into a wealthy danish noble family, he became passionately interested in astronomy. Completing his studies abroad returning to Denmark, he established himself as Europe’s leading astronomer with his detailed observations of the new star of 1572. Aided by generous grants from the king of Denmark, he built the most fistic hated observatory of his day
Tycho Brahe
Brahe and Rudolph II built a new observatory in Prague. in return for the emperor’s support, he pledged to create a new and improved tables of planetary motion’s, called the…
Rudolfine tables
Brahe’s young assistant. Reworked Brahe’s mountain of observations. From a German noble family, he had permanently damaged hands and eyesight. The brilliant mathematician inspired by a belief that the universe was built on mystical mathematical relationships and harmony of the heavenly bodies
Johannes Kepler
Written by Johannes Kepler written about laws of astronomy
The new astronomy
(1564–1642) Young Florentine was challenging all the old ideas about motion. He was a poor nobleman first marked for a religious career. Instead, his fascination with mathematics lead to a professorship in which he examined motion in mechanics in a new way. His great achievement was the elaboration and consolidation of experimental method.
Galileo Galilei
Published in Italian and widely read, this work openly lampooned the traditional views of Aristotle and Ptolemy and defended those of Copernicus. Galileo was tried for heresy by the papal inquisition, imprisoned and threatened with torture for writing this.
Dialogue on the two Chief Systems of the World
(1642–1727) he was born into the lower English gentry, and he enrolled at Cambridge University in 1661. A genius who spectacularly united the experimental and theoretical – mathematical sides of modern science, he was also fascinated by alchemy. He left behind 30 years worth of encoded journals recording experiments to discover the elixir of life and a way to change base metals into gold and silver. Claimed to have discovered the law of universal gravitation.
Isaac Newton
In 1684 Newton returned to physics in the preparation of his ideas for publication. The result appeared three years later in the …
Newton’s towering accomplishment was a single explanatory system that could interrogate the astronomy of Copernicus, as corrected by Kepplers law, which the physics of Galileo and his predecessors. It laid down Newton’s three laws of motion, using a set of mathematical laws that explain motion and mechanics.
Philosophicae naturalis Principa Mathematica
mathematical principles of natural philosophy
(1561-1526) English politician and writer was the greatest early propagandist for the new experimental method, rejecting the Aristotelian and medieval method, of using speculative reasoning to build general theories, he argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through and empirical research.
Francis Bacon
(1516–1564) Flemish physician, studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies. Issued his masterpiece on the structure of the human body.
Andreas Vesalius
Written by Andreas Vesalius 200 precise drawings, revolutionized the understandings of human anatomy.
On the structure of the human body
1689-1755 one of the greatest philosophes. Saw relations between men and women as highly representative of the overall social and political system.
Baron de Montesquieu
1748 written by Montesquieu. Inspired by the critical method of problem of government. Complex comparative study of republics, and monarchies.
The spirit of laws
1684–1778 The most famous and in many ways most representative Philosophe In his long career, this son of a comfortable middle-class family wrote more than 70 witty volumes with kings and queens, and died a millionaire because of shrewd business speculations. He was a rested on two occasions for insulting a nobleman.
Voltaire
Written to change the general way of thinking. Diderot and D’Alembert had different interests but they set out, in 1751, to find people who would examine the rapidly expanding whole of human knowledge. They set out to do Teach people how to think critically and objectively about all matters.
Philosophes’ encyclopedia
1713-1784 cowriter of the philosophes encyclopedia. He wanted the Encyclopedia to change the general way of thinking.
Dennis Diderot
1711-1776 The most important figure in Edinburg, who carefully argued religious skepticism had powerful impact at home and abroad. Building on Locke’s teachings, he argued that the human mind is really nothing but a bundle of impressions. His inquiry ended up undermining the Enlightenment’s faith in the power of reason.
David Hume
7024-1804 A professor in East Prussia and the greatest German philosopher of his day, posed the question of the age when he published a pamphlet in 1784 entitled “what is enlightenment?” He answered “dare to know!”
Immanuel Kant
1712–1778 The most famous thinker and writer to attack the Enlightenment’s faith and reason. The son of a poor watchmaker. He came to believe that his Philosophe friends were plotting against him. He was a lonely outsider. Passionately committed to individual freedom. He attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying, rather than liberating, the individual. He also called for rigid division and gender roles.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau’s contribution to political theory drew less attention at first but proved to be highly significant. His contribution was based on two fundamental concepts: the general will and popular sovereignty.
Social contract
1740-1786 built masterfully on the work of his father. Embraced culture and literature rather than crude life. Determined to use the splendid army that his father had left him. Frederick William I ‘s son
Frederick II , commonly known as Frederick the great
1762–7096 was one of the most remarkable rulers of her age, and the French philosophes adored her. Never question that absolute monarchy was the best form of government she set out to rule in an enlightened manner. She had three main goals: to bring the culture of Western Europe to Russia, domestic reforms, Territorial expansion
Cathrine the great
17 40–70 48 she was forced to seed almost all of Selisa to Prussia. Formed alliance with the leaders of France and Russia. The aim of alliance during the resulting seven years war was to cover Prussia and divide up its territory
Maria Theresa
“Wealth of nations” advocated the idea laissez faire; or government not involving themselves in the economy.
Adam smith
English navigator who claimed the east coast of Australia for Britain and discovered several pacific islands 1728-1779
Captain James cool
A book written by Galileo that was banned by the church because of his belief of the solar system and how his teaching this was against the church
Dialogue on the two chief systems of the world
