Unit 4: Misinformation Effect, Implicit Memory, Dual Process Recognition Flashcards
What is the general idea of RI in the real world?
new task-relevant information makes to difficult or impossible to recall or reconstruct prior beliefs, knowledge, responses
a good thing: knowledge revision
a bad thing: hindsight bias, misinformation effect
What is the definition of hindsight bias?
the hindsight bias involves the tendency people have to assume that they knew the outcome of an event after the outcome has already been determined
What is the experimental condition in a typical 3-phase design in studying hindsight bias?
phase 1: respond to a target question –> R1
phase 2: learn the answer to target question
phase 3: recall initial response (R1)
What is the control condition in a typical 3-phase design in studying hindsight bias?
phase 1: respond to a target question –> R1
phase 2: learn the answer to control question
phase 3: recall initial response (R1)
What are the different accounts of the experimental condition in a typical 3-phase design in studying hindsight bias?
assert that solution either “biases” knowledge base and/or reconstruction process
solution is source of RI making retrieval of R1 difficult
What is recollection bias?
% correct recall of R1: control > experimental
standard associate interference (phase 2 answer competes with R1)
What is reconstruction bias?
in experimental control: phase 3 response shifted in direction of phase 2 information
in control condition: phase 2 information has no affect in phase 3 response
phase 2 information cause a revision of underlying beliefs
when R1 not retrieved, answer reconstructed with revised information
What is the misinformation effect?
general phenomenon: memory for events distorted by exposure to inaccurate/misleading post-event information
benign aspect: post-event narration/discussion can alter autobiographical memories
forensic issue: post-event questioning can alter eyewitness testimony
What is the basic paradigm of studying the misinformation effect?
a event is witnessed (on tape)
post-event questioning used to introduce misinformation
correct post-event information: did the repairman set down his hammer before taking the calculator?
misleading post-event information: did the repairman set down his screwdriver before taking the calculator?
neutral: did the repairman set down his tool before taking the calculator?
test: recognition for details of original event; two item forced choice; did you see a hammer or a screwdriver?
finding: % correct as a function of post-event info type; correct > neutral»_space; misleading
What is memory overwriting?
misleading information overwrote the original information, destroying original information and thus modifying the event memory
What is source monitoring failure?
errors reflect a failure to identify the source: people remember information, but misremember where it came from
information that people are mislead about is often that which they make source errors for
What is memory coexistence (RI)?
misleading information obscures original memory because it is more recent
What is the support for memory coexistence?
memory better when original context is reinstated
memory better if people are warned of misleading information before test
What are the central notions of the biased guessing account by McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985)?
target and foil (misinformation) can coexist
either or both can be forgotten
magnitude of misinformation effect depends on: prob (target recalled), prob (foil recalled), %(foil selected over target)
implication: if foil removed from reso test then, MISLED = CONTROL
reason: “remembered” misleading inform no longer competing with original information
What is the test for the biased guessing hypothesis?
introduce modified recognition test
predictions for recognition accuracy:
biased guessing: modified misleading = control
memory change: modified misleading < control
misleading info should decrease memory for original info regardless of test
What was the method used in McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985) to test the biased guessing hypothesis?
views slides, 10 minute filler, read narrative, 10 minute filler, 36-item 2IFC recognition test
“the man slid the calculator beneath the ____ in his tool box”
standard test: hammer vs. screwdriver
modified test: hammer vs. wrench
What were the results of McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985) to test the biased guessing hypothesis?
standard test: replicates misinformation effect: misled «_space;control
modified test: consistent with biased guessing, misled = control
access to original info unimpaired by post-event info
consistent with coexistence and source monitoring accounts
What is the Belli (1992) study on misinformation with modified procedure?
44 slides (mother and child arguing)
4 crit slides (coffeemaker, blender, toaster)
500 word narrative with 2 misleading statements
2IFC modified reco test
design - manipulates timing of misinformation
What were the results of the Belli (1992) study on misinformation with modified procedure?
with 5-min delay: mod misled = control (consistent with biased guessing)
with 5-day delay: mod misled < control (at least consistent with coexistence and RI)
What is Belli’s explanation of the blocking hypothesis?
post-event information impairs access to original traces when:
original trace is weak
post-event information strong
What are the factors affecting the strength of misinformation effect found by Loftus (2005)?
timing: the longer the delay between the event and misinformation, the stronger effect
warnings: pre-info warning weakens effect, post-info warning also reduces magnitude of misinformation effect
age: children and elder most susceptible
personality: dissociation score predicts effect
What is the summary of the misinformation effect discussed in class?
memory impairment, coexistence, and source monitoring errors are not mutually exclusive
as the work on hindsight bias indicates, new information can: modify existing information, coexist with existing information, block access to existing information
What is inhibition?
well established at neural level
increased activation of one unit, decreases activation in others
inhibition also observed in visual attention/object perceptions
What is the inhibition processes in memory performance?
retrieval of ITEMI decreases the likelihood that ITEMJ will be retrieved
assumption: inhibition is an active process
has the flavor of repression/suppression, but functions to increase memory efficacy not to “protect the self”
What is the Anderson, Bjork & Bjork (1994) study of retrieval induced forgetting?
aim: demonstrate that retrieval can produce forgetting
materials: category-instance pairs (COLOR-red; PET-dog, FRUIT-apple)
6 pairs/category
3-phase procedure:
study: each pair presented once for 5 seconds
retrieval practice: complete category-stem with list instance
each category-stem presented 3 times
test phase: given each category name –> recall all instance
What were the results of the Anderson, Bjork & Bjork (1994) study of retrieval induced forgetting?
practice effect: PIPC»_space; UIUC
UIUC > UIPC
if not rehearsed, being an instance of a practiced category hinders recall
interpretation: UIPC inhibited during practice in order to make retrieval of practiced items easier
What is collaborative inhibition?
memory is worse when recalled as a group
each person has a retrieval plan (in a sense RI)
other retrieval plans disrupt others
What are the implications for forgetting?
probability of recall decreases, as numbers of ERs linked to a cued concept increases
other possible mechanisms: decay, knowledge revision and biased reconstruction inhibition
What is implicit memory?
any form of memory that does not require consciousness and can operate without a person being aware that he is using his memory
people show evidence of memories for experiences that they cannot consciously retrieve
memory without awareness
What is the strategy for studying implicit memory?
demonstrate that prior experience affects performance on tasks that do not require retrieval or recognition of those prior experiences
such tests are called indirect tests
What are the two types of implicit tests?
word-related test
judgments
What are word-related test?
fragment completion
word-stem completion
perceptual ID
lexical decision: word-association, general-knowledge, category-instance generation
What are judgments?
fame, truth, liking, r-w estimation
What are common indirect tests?
fragment completion: __e__e__c__
stem completion: fre__ __ __ __ __ __
anagrams: ticilipm
lexical decision: word/non-word? TREB
perceptual identification: read word (identify object) presented VERY briefly
What is the evidence for implicit memory on indirect tests?
indirect tests typically use improved performance as the measure of implicit memory
priming: the improvement in performance on a subsequent occasion due to processing on a pervious occasion
What are priming effects?
experimental condition: a prior exposure to stim
control: “no” prior exposure to stim
priming
fragment, stem, anagram:
dv – % complete: exp > control
perceptual identification
dv – % correct: exp > control
lexical decision:
dv – RT: exp < control
What were the results of the Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) study on priming effects?
reco decreased with dealy frag unaffected by delay
delay causes a dissociation between reco & frag tests
implication: test tap different “forms” of memory
What is the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?
aims: using same materials demonstrate that explicit memory increased with depth of processing and implicit memory increased with perceptual similarity
materials selected so that: as depth of processing increased, perceptual similarity decreased
What is design of the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?
encoding task (antonym generation, read antonym in context, read target alone) x test (recognition, perceptual ID 40 ms)
What were the predictions in the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?
recognition: deeper processing should produce better performance
percp ID: priming should become stronger as study and test materials become more similar
What were the results of the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?
w/out prior exposure (control): perc ID = 60%
in all conditions: Perc ID > 60%, priming
reco increased with depth of processing
Perc ID increased perc similarity (Perc ID increased LoP)
evidence for 2 types of memory
What is the transfer appropriate process theory?
assumes performance depends on match between processing at study and processing at test
analogous to encoding specificity
What are the two types of processes in transfer appropriate process theory?
data-driven (perceptual) - processing of physical features
conceptually-driven (semantic) - processing for meaning
What are the indirect tests for data-driven processes?
perceptual
fragment completion
stem completion
anagram completion
lexical decision
perceptual identification
What are the indirect tests for conceptually-driven processes?
word association
category-instance generation
general knowledge
Why are tests for transfer appropriate process theory typically confounded?
direct tests require/benefit from conceptual processing
indirect tests require/benefit from data-driven processing
however, it is possible to unconfound test-type from process-type (e.g.):
fragment-cued recall test: data-driven, direct
general knowledge test: conceptual, indirect
What is the Blaxton (1989) study on transfer appropriate processing?
goal to demonstrate:
data-driven processing can affect direct tests
data-driven processing does not necessarily affect indirect tests
design:
study mode (visual, auditory) x explicitness (direct, indirect), level (data-driven, conceptually-driven)
test modality: always visual
What are the competing prediction in Blaxton (1989) study on transfer appropriate processing?
standard view: modality match should affect only indirect tests
for both implicit tests: visual > auditory
for both explicit tests: visual = auditory
TAP view: modality match should affect data-driven tasks only
priming depends on match between study/test
processing match & not on test instructions:
for both data-driven tests: visual > auditory
for both conceptually-driven tests: visual = auditory
What were the results of the Blaxton (1989) study on transfer appropriate processing?
priming effect (v > a) for data-driven tasks only:
indirect: frag completion
direct: graphemic-cued recall
not all indirect tests display priming effect
Gen Know (indirect, conceptual): V = A
What are the implications of transfer appropriate processing theory?
it is the match between processing at study and processing at test that produces priming effects
priming can affect performance on both indirect tests and direct tests
implication: at least for direct tests, performance reflects both implicit and explicit memory
question: is it also the true that indirect tests reflect both implicit and explicit memory?
What is the Nissen & Bullemer (1987) study on fixed sequence learning?
task: press button under 1 of 4 lights
sequence type:
repeating – same pattern reports every across every 10 trials
random – lights presented at random (no sequence)
details: 800 10-trial sequences
What were the results of the Nissen & Bullemer (1987) study on fixed sequence learning?
repeated: RT rapidly decreased over blocks
random: RT little changes over block
repeat-condition Ps unable to report sequence
conclusion: sequence learning/use was unconscious/implicit
subjects are sensitive to the presence of the sequence even when they deny knowing that there was a sequence
What is rule-based sequence learning?
artificial grammars – general approach
use artificial grammar to define/generate “grammatical sequences)
What is the Reber (1967) study on artificial grammar?
aim: can people learn “grammatical” rules w/out intention
two groups:
grammatical: (implicitly) learn sets of grammar-generated letter sequences
random: learn sets of randomly generated letter sequences
test: grammatically judgment:
50% grammatical
50% ungrammatical
What were the results of the Reber (1967) study on artificial grammar?
phase-1 learning: grammatical faster than random
phase-2 grammatical-judgment task:
grammatical group: 79%
random group: chance
grammatical group could not state the rules explicitly
conclusion:
grammatical group (implicit) learned the rules/grammar during Task 1
rules: facilitated strong learning; enabled classification
What are the different approaches to implicit learning?
rules (Reber)
instance-based (Brooks): encode examples/instances, assess similarity between target and stored instances
fragment-based (Perruchet): learn string fragments (bigrams, trigrams), reject strings lacking learned fragments
problem: some knowledge might be explicit
What are dual-process accounts?
general view – two sources of info
analytic, explicit, controlled
nonanalytic, implicit, automatic
assumption - “no process pure tasks”
Why is the interpretation of dual process accounts a problem for indirect tests?
contamination
issue generalizes to: direct tests, judgment tasks
What are recognition tasks?
process of list of items: STIM 1… STIM n
test: “was STIMx on prior list?”
STIMx on list –> OLD
STIMx not on list –> NEW
What is the dual-process account of recognition by Mandler (1980)?
reco judgments based on 2 types of information
recollection: judgment based on successful retrieval of information about the study episode
familiarity: judgment based on assessed familiarity (fluency)
evidence: remember/know judgments, process dissociations
What are the differences between remembering and knowing?
2 phenomenal experiences
remember = successful recollect of details of prior episode
know = high levels familiarity, in the absence of recollection
remember –> R
know –> A
What is the Rajaram (1993) study on remembering/knowing?
experiment 1: levels of processing
R: semantic > rhyme; K: deep = shallow
experiment 2: pictures vs words
R: picture > words; K: picture = word
general findings: factors that increase recollection, increase remember (LoP, repetition, short (vs long) delay
problems: poor terminology, judgmental criteria, r/k as confidence judgment
converging evidence: process dissociation studies
What was the Umanath & Coane (2020) study on what remember and know mean?
issue: how do “real” people understand “remember” & “know”
participants: “real” people, non-cog psychologists, cog psychologists, not memory, memory psychologists
task: provide opened responses to:
“when you say I remember something, it’s because”
“when you say I know something, it’s because”
What were the results of the Umanath & Coane (2020) study on what remember and know mean?
“remember” rarely means “recollection”, sometimes refers to events
“know” rarely means “familiarity”, sometime refers to semantic knowledge
What was the Jacoby (1991) study on process dissociation?
two independent process: recollective (R) and automatic (A)
strategy: set processes in opposition –> manipulate factors affecting recollection
2 tests:
recollection –> yes (inclusion)
recollection –> no (exclusion)
goal: compute values for R & A
data:
inclusion = R + A(1 - R)
exclusion= A91 - R)
parameter estimates
R = inclusion - exclusion
A = exclusion / (1-R)
What is the direct test for process dissociation?
read a list of words - List 1
hear a list of words - List 2
two recognition tests:
both tests include List 1, List 2 and novel words
inclusion test: respond “old” if word was on either list
exclusion test: respond “old” only if word was on List 2
What is the inclusion test for process dissociation?
respond “old” if word was on either list
intentional (recollective) process will have a certain probability of concluding “old” for List 1 words - R
automatic process will also have a certain probability of concluding “old” for List 1 words - A
if either process concludes “old”, the subject will respond “old”
P(old) = R + A(1 - R)
What is the inclusion test for process dissociation?
respond “old” only if word was on List 2
subject will only respond “old” to List 1 words if two things happen:
the automatic process responds “old” due to a feeling of familiarity - A
the intentional process fails to recognize the word (if it had, it would recall it was from List 1) - (1 - R)
P(old) = A(1- R)
What are the implications of process dissociation procedure?
there are no process pure tasks
both recollective/explicit & automatic/implicit processes can influence performance on both direct and indirect tests of memory
