Unit 3: Episodic Memory Flashcards
What is the difference between procedural and declarative memory?
procedural: knowing how
declarative: knowing that
What is episodic memory?
autobiographical
temporally “dated”
interference from similar episodes
retrieval also serves as input (i.e., episodic memory is continually being updated)
What is semantic memory?
language (lexical memory)
world knowledge
not temporally dated
very well-organized
not changes or modified by retrieval of information (i.e., not continually updated)
What is content episodic memory?
representation of specific events
mini-events: “the word BOOK on List 2”
real-events: “driving in Cozumel”
What is an event representation (ER)?
a particular instantiation of a bound configuration of intersecting concepts
What are the links between event representation and concepts?
links between ER and concepts differ in strength (as do the links between concepts)
strength depends of: frequency, recency, co-occurrence, contiguity
How do cues in WM access conceptual information in LTM?
origin of cues: environment, self-generated, provided by experimenter
concepts “spread activation” to linked nodes (other concepts and ERs)
ERn activation > thresholdT, “ERn retrieved”
What are the implications of the relationship between cues and ERs?
the stronger the link between a cued concept and an ER, the greater probability that the ER will be recalled
the more ER-to-concept links there are, the greater the probability that a given cue will serve as an effective retrieval cue (elaboration, depth or processing)
context (internal and external) is encoded as part of the ER, and thus contextual features can serve as retrieval cues
increasing the similarity between encoding contexts and retrieval contexts increases the probability of retrieval (context effects, TAP)
probability of recall decreases, as number of ERs linked to a cued concept increases (interference)
What is encoding?
process of storing information in memory
What is storage?
the retention, alteration (& loss) of encoded information over time
What is retrieval?
recovery of previously stored information
What is rehearsal?
a set of techniques/strategies for encoding information into long-term memory
What are the two kinds of rehearsal?
maintenance: keeps information “alive” in WM; rote recycling; little effect on LTM
elaboration: “promotes” information to LTM; think about and connect
What is the task in the maintenance rehearsal study by Craik and Watkins (1973)?
monitor auditory list for words beginning with target letter (e.g., G)
required to recall “last” target word at end of list (list could end at any time)
session final recall - recall as many words as possible
What is the manipulation in the maintenance rehearsal study by Craik and Watkins (1973)?
number of words between appearance of target word
assumed equal to amount of rehearsal
What were the results of the maintenance rehearsal study by Craik and Watkins (1973)?
results: recall unaffected by number of rehearsals
interpretation: rote (maintenance) rehearsal fails to transfer info to LTM
What is the elaborative encoding task study by Bradshaw & Anderson (1982)?
tasks: recall “target” fact
design: encoding context x delay
target only: immediate (no delay)
target + 2 irrelevant facts (delay 1 week)
target + 2 relevant facts
What were the results of the elaborative encoding task study by Bradshaw & Anderson (1982)?
encoding relevant facts improved recall
encoding irrelevant facts hampered recall
effect was magnified by delay
interpretation:
relevant elaboration increases number of retrieval path
relevant facts fosters generation of appropriate cues
irrelevant facts cause interference
What is the issue of spacing effects?
rehearsal improves memory
does the temporal distribution of rehearsals matter?
What is the research strategy of studying spacing effects?
holding number of presentations constant, manipulate the lag (delay) between presentations
What was the Madigan (1969) study of spacing effects?
method: words studied twice at 6 different lags
results: recall increased with lag
other findings: spacing affects recognition, obtained with textbook materials
How does deficient processing account for the spacing effect?
habituate to recently presented material (less “interesting”)
metamneomic inference: short lags –> overestimation of learning –> decreases (or redistributed) rehearsals
How does encoding variability account for the spacing effect?
recall depends in part on study context matching test context
context changes with time
the greater the lag, the more different the encoding contexts, and therefore the more likely that one of them will overlap with the test context
What is the definition of subjective organization?
organizing and structuring a list of items, but without the experimenter-supplied category structure
What is the subjective-organization phenomena?
recall better for lists composes of randomly presented sets of category members than for random words
category members clusters during study and recall
recall of random word lists becomes increasingly organized with practice
What is the study by Bower et al. (1969) on experimenter-provided organization?
materials: 4 hierarchically organized trees, 112 words in all, 4 study-test blocks
two groups:
organized: words in “correct” position in trees
random: words assigned to positions randomly
results:
recall increased over blocks
recall: organized»_space; random
How is encoding efficiency a benefit of organization?
strengthens preexisting superordinate-subordinate links & intra-category links
no need to generate and encode new elaborations
How is retrieval efficiency a benefit of organization?
category label can be used as retrieval cue
category knowledge can be used to generate items, which can be recognized as list members
What is the study by Slamecka and Graf (1978) on the generation effect?
generate condition: hot - c___; fast - s___
subjects generate second word given first letter and a rule such as antonym
read condition: hot - cold; fast - slow
result: recall/recognize better for generated than read words
What is the definition of the generation effect?
information you generate is better remembered than information you only hear or read
What is the explanation of the generation effect?
depth of processing: generation condition requires deeper processing than read condition
What is the levels of processing model by Craik & Lockhart (1972)?
“new” processing model for understanding human memory
essence of levels:
emphasis on processes, not stores
memory is an outgrowth of perception/processing
shallow (“perceptual”) vs. deep (“meaningful”) processing
What is the shallow versus deep distinction in the levels of processing model?
shallow:
sensory analyses (physical properties)
pattern recognition (stimulus identification)
elaborative processing (imagery, associations)
deep:
What was the study by Hyde & Jenkins (1973) on levels of processing?
tasks:
study - perform orienting task
test free recall
design:
orienting (very shallow, shallow, deep) x learning (incidental, intentional) + no orienting control
materials: 24 words; 1 word per 3 seconds
varied depth of processing: count e’s, count number of letters, make pleasantness judgment
varied intention to learn: just do the above task (incidental), do the task and learn the list (incid + intent), learn the list (intentional-only)
What were the results of the study by Hyde & Jenkins (1973) on levels of processing?
LoP affected
intention did not
semantic process almost equals intentional study
What was Craik & Lockhart’s interpretation of their results in their levels of processing study?
cognitive system organized hierarchically
input processed at different levels: sensory –> semantic
product of earlier analysis is input to latter analysis
memory trace “simply a record of those analysis”
“deeper more sematic analysis yields records that are more durable”
traces: richer, more elaborate, semantic encoding more distinctive
What are the criticisms of the levels of processing model?
circularity = there is no independent measure of depth in the framework
how can you rank order these levels?
is it green?
is it an animal?
does it contain an R?
is it GORF reversed?
does it rhyme with DOG?
What is the value of the levels of processing model?
places emphasis on processes
introduced a technique - incidental learning with an orienting task - for studying encoding processes
fits well with transfer appropriate processing view
What is context and memory?
context: stimuli present “at the same time” as the target
eventn = content + contextni + contextnj
context encoded (almost) automatically with content
encoding context can serve as retrieval path
test context can serve as a retrieval cue
general prinicple: when test context ~ study context, performance increased
What is an independent context?
the information setting is stored together with the trace of the stimulus focal element, but does not fundamentally change the trace
external: environmental, location
internal: physiological, emotional
What is an interactive context?
an interactive encoding occurs when the context actually changes the way in which the stimulus focal element is encoded
semantic: strawberry jam vs. traffic jam
What is the encoding specificity principle?
the probability of recalling an item at test depends on the similarity of its encoding at test and its encoding at study
What is state-dependent memory?
general approach for studying context effects: materials studied in StateX, maerials tested in StateX or StateY
state-dependent memory effect observed when memory is better when study and test states match than when they mismatch
What is the Godden & Baddeley (1975) study on context-dependent memory?
either studying on land or underwater
either tested on land or underwater
participants: 16 divers
materials: 40 words
results:
LL»_space; LU
UU»_space; UL
What is the Eich & Metcalfe (1989) study on mood dependent memory?
induce mood by using music
read or generate neutral words during study
either studying with happy or sad music
either tested with happy or sad music
generation effect: generate»_space; read
mood congruence:
H/H»_space; H/S
S/S»_space; S/H
What is the Goodwin et al. (1969) study on state-dependent memory and alcohol?
manipulation: 10 oz of 80 proof vodka; 24 hour study-test delay
standard 2x2: I/I, S/S, I/S, S/I
results: S/S < S/I, I/I < I/S, S/I < I/I
fewest errors S/S
S/S is better than S/I
I/I is much better than I/S
What is the Eich et al (1975) study on state-dependent memory and marijuana?
manipulation: marijuana vs tobacco, 4 hour study-test delay
standard 2x2: m/m, t/t, m/t, t/m
results: t/t > t/m; m/m > m/t; t/t >/= m/m
point c –> encoding better when straight
What were the results and interpretations of studies on state-dependent memory and alcohol?
sober@study > intoxicated@study, regardless of test state
reason: attention, comprehension, & elaboration processes more effective when sober
intoxicated@study then sober@test condition particularly bad
reason: poor (idiosyncratic) encoding; bad match between encoding & retrieval conditions
state-dependent effect stronger for recall than recognition
reason: recall requires more cues, and state provides context cues
What is the general idea of interactive contexts?
event traces encode meaning
meaning emerges from the meanings of the focal element and its semantic context
retrieval cues that access encoded meaning will be more effective than those that do not
What is a retrieval cue?
a hint that can be used to evoke an item that has been learnt but cannot be spontaneously recalled
What is the Thomson & Tulving (1970) study on encoding specificity with interactive contexts?
aim: demonstrate that recall depends on match between encoded and cued meaning
materials: 24 word pairs
deign: input contexts (2) x output cues (3)
input contexts:
strong: hot - COLD
weak: wind - COLD
output cues: strong, weak, no-cue
recall best when input and output match
mismatch –> misdirects search
What was the Fisher & Craik (1977) study on LoP and encoding specificity?
aim: demonstrate LoP and ES in same experience
design:
encoding task (rhyme, category, sentence) x encoding response (yes, no) x retrieval cue (rhyme, category, sentence)
results:
LoP effect: category >/= sentence»_space; rhyme
encoding specificty: encoding-retrieval cue matches > mismatches
What are the main points of encoding and retrieval?
memory trace is combination of the “stimulus” and the context
context broadly defined: environmental, physiological, semantic, procedural
performance depends on: encoding processes, similarity between study context & test context
What is the central idea of the testing effect?
taking a test enhances learning and leads to better retention over time
What is the central distinction within the testing effect?
testing for assessment vs. testing to enhance learning
What is the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) study on the testing effect?
experiment #1:
stimuli: 2 prose passages from TOEFL prep book (~260 words each)
learning condition (within-subjects): restudy (two 7 min periods of study) vs. test (7 min period of study, followed by 7 min period of test)
retention interval (between subjects): 5 min, 2 days, or 1 week
experiment #2:
similar to experiment 1, accept: 4 blocks, and only 2 delay conditions
What were the results of the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) study on the testing effect?
got worse over time
5 minutes: S/S is better than S/T
2 days: S/S lose a lot more than S/T
1 week: same effect from 2 days is maintained
What is the summary of testing effects discussed in lecture?
repetition: more tests > fewer tests
feedback: delayed > immediate > none
spacing: spaced testing > massed testing
What are the study-phase retrieval-focused approaches to testing effects?
retrieval –> elaboration/organization –> additional retrieval pathways
transfer appropriate processing
processes required during study-phase testing are very similar to processes test-phase testing
processes required during study-phase study are not
What is decay?
information in memory fades with time and disuse
“memory trace spontaneously deteriorates over time”
What is retrieval failure?
retrieval cues do not access sought after information
What is interference?
retrieval of sought-after information hindered by presence of other information
“memory either masks or obliterates other information”
What is the Ebbinghaus (1885) study on the 1st forgetting function?
task: learned lists of 13 CVCs to criterion (2 perfect runs through list)
manipulation: study-test delay
dependent variable: savings in relearning
main findings: amount of forgetting decreases with time
interpretation: forgetting driven by decay; information lost at a constant rate
What is a sample decay function?
rate of forgetting constant over time
amount of forgotten/unit decreased with time
What is necessary to prove decay?
control proactive interference: all prior experience must be held constant
control retrospective interference: all subsequent experience must be help constant
What are the empirical problems with decay?
very long-term memory (permastore):
for high school classmates
for foreign languages
What is Anderson’s defense of decay in that decay functions exist?
a number of long-term forgetting functions look like power-law, decay functions - demonstrate that information is lost at a constant rate
What is the study by Brown et al. (2009) on decay functions in autobiographical memory?
word-cue method: respond to word cue with 1st AM that comes to mind; estimate date of retrieved event
participants: age of 20/30 years old, location of 7 countries
What is Anderson’s defense of decay of the physiological argument?
it may be that there is not explanation of decay at the purely psychological level… it has been shown that synaptic efficacy deteriorates with lack of use, and apparently this deterioration follows a power law
thus, it may be that mechanism underlying the very powerful lawful functions
What is the Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) experiment on retrieval failure?
materials: 48 words - 12 categories x 4 instances
group:
uncued - free recall
cued - cued with the 12 category names
results: cued (62%) > uncued (40%)
conclusion: in uncued condition, information was available, but not accessible
availability = probability information was stored
accessibility = degree to which info can be retrieved
What is interference?
retrieval of sought-after-information hindered by presence of other information
What is negative transfer?
previously learning impedes new learning
What is proactive interference (PI)?
older knowledge impedes access to new knowledge
interference forward in time
What is retroactive interference (RI)?
new knowledge impedes access to old knowledge
interference backward in time
What is associative interference?
atemporal - related knowledge competes with target
What is the Anderson (1974) study of the fan effect?
study: 26 sentence - the person is in the location
test: time recognition of presented and recombined sentences
design: sentences/person (1 or 2) x sentences/location (1 or 2)
RT increased 60 msec/link (i.e., additional links interfere with retrieval)
explanation: activation passed to target decreased, as number of links increase
additional finding - “chunking” decreases fan effect
What are the classic studies of proactive and retroactive interference?
classic studies: paired associate learning
study: cue-target word pairs (CUP-tree)
test: given cue, recall target (CUP-???)
manipulate presence, timing & similarity of additional targets
What are the general findings of the classic studies of proactive and retroactive interference?
cued recall: control > experimental
similarity effects: the more similar B is C, the more server the interference
How is the Brown & Peterson Task related to PI and RI?
task: learn triplet –> filled delay –> recall triplet
finding: recall drops off very rapidly with delay
original interpretation: forgetting caused by decay in STM, forgetting indicates the rate of loss from STM
alternative interpretation: forgetting caused by PI from similar materials
implication: PI should be reduced when new list differs from prior lists
What is the Wickens (1972) study on release from PI?
task: Standard Brown-Peterson task
procedure:
trials 1 through 3: triples drawn from same semantic category
trial 4: triple drawn from different category
What were the results of the Wickens (1972) study on release from PI?
PI increases (recall decreases) across same-category trials
when category changes, recall increases; release from PI
RPI increase as similarity between initial category and new category
finding generalize to real-world material (news stories)
What is the activation-discrimination interpretation of release from PI?
activation: concepts activated when accessed, activation decays rapidly
retrieval: search some (cued) portion of memory for most active concepts
PI: difficult to discriminate between many activated concepts
RPI: relatively easy to select active concepts among inactive ones
