UNIT 4: HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS THE GOVERNMENT'S ATTEMPTS TO IMPROVE THE PROVISIONS OF EDUCATION? Flashcards
Describe Education prior to 1917.
Education in Tsarist Russia had been largely limited to the rich, especially at secondary and university level.
Technical schools aimed at the children of the middle class in cities.
Primary level education provided by the Russian Orthodox Church and there were several thousand peasant-run schools, but for many children school was not considered an important part of their life.
School attendance was not compulsory and many dropped out before completing four years. In rural areas, 88 percent of children failed to complete primary education.
Describe the expansion of compulsory education.
The expansion of compulsory education
* Under Lunachevsky: In 1917, control of education was given to the Commissariat of Education (Narkompros), headed by Anatoly Lunachevsky. Campaign launched to provide free, universal and compulsory education for all children aged 7 to 17, with a simultaneous expansion in higher education. By 1918, existing church schools were taken over by the gov and education was based on the comprehensive model: schools took children of all abilities and all received the same education until the last few years of secondary level provision.
The aim of universal compulsory education was not successful under Lunachevsky’s due to the lack of resources caused by the civil war of 1918-21 e.g. Narkompros could only supply one pencil for every 60 students so they wrote with coal. Teachers were poorly paid and often expected to teach classes of 40 or had to clean the school with no pay: poor conditions caused poor ed experience, high drop-out rates: In 1926, the average child had only attended school for 2.77 years.
During the 1930s: The goal of providing universal compulsory education was largely achieved, particularly in urban areas. The number of children in education increased from 14 million in 1929 to over 20 million in 1931. Yet, most school children failed to continue their education beyond the first two years of secondary education. The 1930s saw access to education extended to children of ‘alien social elements e.g. bourgeoisie. The standard of teaching in rural areas rose during the 1930s as schools benefited from the large number of teachers deported to isolated areas during the Great Terror.
From 1934: Soviet schooling system established which provided four years of primary-level education, then three years of incomplete secondary education, then students could stay on for two or three more years of ‘complete secondary education or transfer to a vocational programme. Some students left school for work.
In the 1980s: Some changes to the structure. Sov gov turned many general academic schools into specialist schools, for subjects such as mathematics, science or foreign languages with high demand for admission. Participation by girls tended to decline with age. Children of graduates were most likely to gain places, but bribery was sometimes used by parents to secure places for their children.
Describe the obstacles to education expansion.
The expansion of compulsory education had been impressive, especially given the small base on which had to be built in 1917.
The key obstacle was a lack of resources due to the impact of the civil war. Under the NEP, state spending on schools declined and school attendance decreased, only recovering at the end of the 1920s. The lack of resources meant that many schools closed during the winter because there was no heating. Low wages discouraged many people from entering the teaching profession, as did the low status attached to teachers in the 1920s especially in rural areas which significantly suffered from poor teaching and inadequate facilities.
Under funded school transport until it became the burden of parents in 1965. Tuition fees introduced for the last years of secondary education in 1940 then withdrawn in 1956. Yet, parents expected to pay for textbooks, individual equipment and uniforms. For poor rural families, these costs could force children to leave school before the final years of secondary education.
Resources were also severely stretched by the impact of the WW2. A large number of teachers were killed in action, and 82,000 schools were physically destroyed in the fighting. Post-war recovery was difficult. Many schools worked a two- or even three-shift day to cope with the lack of classrooms.
Traditional attitudes towards the importance of education were often hard to overcome.
Attendance at rural schools was scarce, especially at harvest time. Concerned about the different levels of education experienced by rural children compared with those who lived in towns, Khrushchev implemented a programme of affirmative action: collective farmers sent to colleges for specialised education and reserving college places for those who had two years of work experience on collectives - failed to have significant impact in 1964. Students from a rural background remained at a disadvantage. Two-thirds of students came from urban schools and possessed good academic qualifications.
Cultural influences limited the expansion of education: State education was viewed by many from the ethnic minorities as a vehicle for Russification. All school children had to learn Russian, Russian teachers were often regarded with suspicion by minority communities especially Muslim areas -women teachers commanded very little respect, it limited the number of Muslim women entering the higher levels of secondary education e.g. in the Uzbek Republic in 1955, girls made up only 26 percent of the school population in the final two years of secondary education.
Gov policy for other areas could have a negative impact on schooling: forced collectivisation of agriculture after 1928 removed many teachers from village schools as they were seen as elements of the ‘old world’ to be removed in the name of socialist progress - labelled as kulaks and deported to labour camps, worsened under the Cultural Revolution 1931-32; some schools ended up with no teachers at all.
Describe adult education.
Most adults had not received a secondary education. Government recognised that there was a need to address the educational needs of its adults as well as its children:
Short courses on basic literacy and numeracy for adults basic literacy and numeracy with the availability of evening classes for those in work.
Under Khrushchev, opportunities to enable others to return to education as part-time or correspondence students: By 1964, there was over two million attendees.
By the 1970s, diplomas and degrees were offered by vocational colleges and provided a useful strategy for updating workers’ skills as well as offering a route to higher education for those who had dropped out of secondary school early.
Describe the expansion of higher education.
Under the Tsarist regime higher education was the preserve of the rich, and the numbers attending university were very small.
After 1917, Narkompros declared that universities should be open to all and courses were laid on to prepare those without formal qualifications for university study so the government took control of higher education, appointing a Communist rector for each institution which was designed to ensure equality of access to higher education.
In the Soviet era, higher education consisted of two main branches: universities that delivered academic and theoretical courses and specialist institutes and colleges of higher education, which taught applied subjects, such as education, engineering and agriculture. In 1929, the government attempted to widen participation in higher education by dropping entry requirements and introduced a quota system, whereby 70% of places in higher education was reserved for those of working-class origin - successful once then led to a drop-out rate of 70%, as many students failed to finish courses for which they were ill-prepared: abolished in 1935. Led to more emphasis on quality rather than quantity, the percentage of working-class students fell. Despite the return to a more traditional approach in education after 1935, opportunities for working-class students remained better than they were before 1928.
The expansion of higher-education institutions specialising in technical subjects (Khrushchev era) helped to widen participation: half a million were studying in higher education on a part-time basis in 1964. Yet, their status in relation to the more academic universities remained low.
The overall number of students in higher education continued to rise during the Soviet period which was helped by the provision of free tuition between 1940 to 195 and a system of grants to support students’ living costs in which its continuity depended on a student’s performance, they were low so most students worked part-time while in higher education to cover living expenses.
The aim of an education system that would provide opportunities for all in a classless society had been achieved as shown by mass participation in education: By the early 1980s, one-third of Soviet citizens were involved in some form of education.
Describe the reduction of illiteracy>
One of the great successes of Soviet education was the
elimination of illiteracy as it was given great importance by the Communist regime.
In the last years of Tsarist Russia the illiteracy rate was about 65 percent.
1919, the Bolsheviks launched a campaign of ‘the liquidation of illiteracy aimed to make all Soviet citizens aged between 8 and 50 literate Which was essential in ensuring that modern technical skills could be taught and learnt and a wider range of communist propaganda could be used.It would also help loosen the hold of religion over the rural population.
Thousands of ‘liquidation points’ set up in towns and rural areas, where people could undertake basic literacy courses. Between 1920-1926, five million people completed these courses.
Remedial schools (rabfaki) set up for workers without basic literacy and numeracy skills, located at factories with high attendance.
All soldiers in the Red army had to attend literacy classes as part of their service.
A Literacy League established to promote literacy with its own magazine Down with Illiteracy!
Particular emphasis was placed on women, who were more likely to be illiterate, especially in the Muslim areas of Central Asia. 14 million of the 17 million who were illiterate in 1917 were women. Courses for women were provided by the Party’s women’s organisation, Zhenotel.
By 1939, literacy rates had improved: 94% of urban population and 86% of the countryside. By 1959, these figures had improved to 99 and 98 percent. Official statistics may overstate the levels of literacy, but still highly successful.
What was the purpose of the curriculum?
To Instil socialist values and attitudes into the population - ‘new socialist man’.
Indoctrinated socialism in children at an early age through propaganda therefore, securing support for the continuation of the communist regime.
Soviet education would attack traditional practices and beliefs by reducing the hold of religion and patriarchal attitudes which would improve the status of women.
Policy of industrialisation in the 1930s, education would enable the population to acquire the technical skills and expertise needed in a modern economy. In the period 1945 to 1985, the need to match the technological developments of the West needed a constant updating of skills. Under Khrushchev, there was an increased emphasis on the development of technological knowledge and skills.
Describe early radicalism in education.
The early years of communist rule were marked by a naive radicalism that had an impact on schools.
Education was aimed to indoctrinate socialism. The principle of single schools for all ages and abilities was established.
Teaching was delivered to emphasise discovery, play and group work. Children would study themes, such as farming or nature, rather than traditional subjects. Tests and corporal punishment was abolished.
These changes were opposed by parents who saw an academic education with formal qualifications as the key to brighter prospects for their children.
The authority of teachers declined dramatically, some were dismissed by their own classes and some schools fell into chaos. Many teachers merely ignored government orders and stuck to their traditional method of lecturing students.
Chaos in ed grew worse during the Cultural Revolution of 1931-32 so gov imposed order over the school system.
Stalin’s ‘Great Retreat’ 1936 imposed more traditional measures:
*stressed traditional discipline to ensure individuals knew their duty to the collective.
*Textbooks were prescribed by the government, and traditional subjects and formal examinations were reintroduced.
*Authority within the school returned to the teachers and teaching methods were based on lectures.
Describe Stalin’s Great Retreat in education.
Stalin’s ‘Great Retreat’ 1936 imposed more traditional measures:
Stressed traditional discipline to ensure individuals knew their duty to the collective.
Textbooks were prescribed by the government, and traditional subjects and formal examinations were reintroduced.
Authority within the school returned to the teachers and teaching methods were based on lectures.
All students, whatever their ability, studied the same curriculum until the last years of secondary education.
Subjects were delivered by teachers who had been trained by the government, using approved textbooks and were influenced by a political agenda. Information had to be memorised and then regurgitated for examinations. Creativity and free thinking were not encouraged, even at kindergarten level.
Russian Literature was taught along with one modern foreign language, usually English.
Particular attention was placed on mathematics and science.
History became a political minefield as the publication of the History of the All-Union Communist Party in 1938 presented the official view of developments under Stalin and was to be used for teaching purposes.
Describe the curriculum after Stalin’s Great retreat.
History exams had to be cancelled in 1956 in the light of Khrushchev’s de-Stalinisation policy as history had to be quickly rewritten by a committee of historians led by Boris Ponomaryov: The new official History of the Communist Party, published in 1959, accused Stalin of economic mistakes. During the Brezhnev years, Stalin was simply ignored in the history books produced in the USSR: it was as if Stalin, and the famine of 1932 and the Gulag, had not existed.
The emphasis given to technical and vocational education increased with Khrushchev’s educational reforms of 1958. All schools were required to provide vocational training or allow students to transfer to colleges that offered such provision. Undertaking ‘productive economic work’ became a requirement of going to university.
One of Khrushchev’s aims with these reforms was to bring the educated into closer touch with real life, but it was unpopular with those students and their parents who wished to pursue a more academic education, and the reforms were dropped when Brezhnev became leader, where work experience was expected to take place within the school workshop or garden.
The curriculum indoctrinated Marxist-Leninist Theory. This course was compulsory at all levels of compulsory education and in higher education too where exams had to be passed to secure further progress in chosen field.
There was no difference between what was offered to boys and girls with WW2 being the only exception: Boys were to be given basic military training, while girls had lessons in nursing.
Although since 1936, Stalin’s restoration of traditional school systems had placed authority for school discipline back with the teacher, yet the students were also given a role as each class had a representative, usually elected by the students, whose job was to inform the teacher of any misbehaviour by members of the class. They also had a role in arranging for brighter students to help those who were falling behind with their school work. It was a system that reinforced the duties of the students to socialism and the state.
Describe the degree of change in education 1953-85.
Khrushchev’s reforms of 1958-59 show his attempts to expand higher and adult education for the children of workers and place greater emphasis on technical and vocational education, which faced opposition from the Party, who saw them as restricting the availability of an academic education for the children of the Party elite.
As a result, like many of Brezhnev’s policies, the interests of the Party took priority over those of the state. Nonetheless, concerns remained that education needed to keep pace with the skills needed to match technological advances in the economy. Investment in higher and adult education continued.
Describe youth groups and informal education.
Alongside school, young Soviet citizens had the ideas and attitudes of the Party reinforced through the informal education they received as members of the Party’s youth groups. The Party had a three-tier structure to cover all ages:
Octobrists were for children aged five to nine, where nursery rhymes were learnt and simple games could be played.
The Pioneers covered children from the ages of 10 to 14 where it encouraged good behaviour in school but also provided activities such as sport, drama that extended the range of opportunities offered.
For those aged 14-28 there was Komsomol, the Young Communist League which was seen as essential for progress into the Communist Party itself. Stalin had made use of the enthusiasm and dedication to socialism of Komsomol members to help carry through key changes. Komsomol volunteers had been called upon to build new industrial centres during the first three Five-Year Plans: they were at the forefront of the Cultural Revolution, taking an important role in rooting out class enemies. The organisation grew from 2.3 million members in 1929 to 10.2 million in 1940. In the 1950s, Khrushchev would call on Komsomol members to provide volunteers for his Virgin Lands Scheme. By the 1980s, activists in Komsomol were expected to support community schemes and Party campaigns to raise awareness of social issues. They were sometimes used to report on ‘deviant’ behaviour by youths who listened to foreign music or engaged in vandalism. Many saw Komsomol as a route to career success.
