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Biology 3&4 > Unit 4 AOS 1 > Flashcards

Unit 4 AOS 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are antigens

A

molecules or parts of a molecule that stimulate immune response through the adaptive immune response.

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2
Q

antibodies definition

A

proteins produced by plasma cells in response to antigens and which react specifically with the antigen that induced their formation

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3
Q

immunoglobulins definition

A

antigen-binding proteins produced by B cells and released in blood and lymph

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4
Q

inflammation definition

A

an innate reaction by the immune response to foreign particles or injury resulting in redness and swelling

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5
Q

Cytotoxic T cell definition

A

T cells that are activated by cytokines to bind to antigen–MHC-I complexes on infected host cells and kill infected body cells

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6
Q

what are the 2 ways antigens can be classified as

A

self or non-self

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7
Q

self antigens are:

A

those that are not foreign and are thus usually tolerated by the immune system

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8
Q

non-self antigens definition

A

Non-self antigens can be identified as invaders and can be attacked by the immune system.

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9
Q

what is the main way for an immune cell to tell self and non-self antigens apart

A

the cell surface receptors that tell them if they are self or non-self (MHC)

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10
Q

what is the major histocompatibility complex

A

receptor proteins on the surface of cells that identify the cells as ‘self’

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11
Q

where are MHC-l markers found

A

all nucleated cells

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12
Q

what do MHC-l markers do

A

provide a site for binding of antigens to occur, that allows cells to be recognised as ‘self’ so they will not be attacked

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13
Q

Where are MHC-ll markers found

A
  • mainly on specific white blood cells, including antigen-presenting cells (macrophages and dendritic cells)
  • and helper T cells.
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14
Q

what do MHC-ll markers do

A

the antigen presenting cells present antigens on their surface on these MHC-II markers, which bind to helper T cells to help activate the adaptive immune response.

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15
Q

what is a pathogen

A

A pathogen or infectious agent is a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host

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16
Q

what are the 2 types of pathogens

A
  • cellular
  • and non-cellular
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17
Q

how do cellular and non-cellular pathogens reproduce

A
  • cellular reproduce independently
  • non-cellular hijack the host’s processes in order to replicate.
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18
Q

what are the 4 main cellular pathogens

A
  • bacteria
  • parasites
  • fungi
  • protozoa
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19
Q

cellular pathogens definition

A

any disease-causing agent made up of cells that can reproduce independently without relying on the host machinery

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20
Q

what are cellular pathogens also referred to as

A

microorganisms (microbes)

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21
Q

what type of cell are cellular pathogens

A

can be both eukaryotes or prokaryotes

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22
Q

are bacteria prokaryotic or eukaryotic

A

prokaryotic

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23
Q

is bacteria intracellular or extracellular

A

they can be both

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24
Q

what is a major reason why bacteria is a pathogen (what do they produce)

A

toxins

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25
Q

what do bacteria toxins do

A

damage particular tissues of their host organism and cause disease

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26
Q

what are the 2 types of bacterial toxins

A

endotoxins and exotoxins

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27
Q

exotoxins definition

A

toxins that are secreted into the surrounding medium by a microorganism as it grows

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28
Q

endotoxins definition

A

toxic parts of the outer membrane of some Gram-negative bacteria that are released when the bacteria die

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29
Q

are protozoans prokaryotic or eukaryotic

A

eukaryotic, single celled

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30
Q

are fungi prokaryotic or eukaryotic

A

eukaryotic

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31
Q

what does it mean when said fungi are opportunistic pathogens

A

when it has the chance, bacteria can become a pathogen externally or internally

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32
Q

what are 3 examples of paracites

A
  • roundworms
  • hookworms
  • and whipworms
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33
Q

are fungi prokaryotic or eukaryotic

A

eukaryotic

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34
Q

main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

A

eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus containing the cell’s genetic material, while prokaryotic cells don’t have a nucleus and have free-floating genetic material instead

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35
Q

what are the 2 main non-cellular pathogens

A
  • viruses
  • prions
  • and viroids (littler one)
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36
Q

virus definition

A

non-cellular pathogens that use the host cell in order to replicate their genetic material

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37
Q

prions definition

A

infectious particles made of protein that lack nucleic acids (folded proteins)

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38
Q

viroids definition

A

simple forms of viruses that lack a capsid

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39
Q

how can viruses travel to other organisms

A

Virions are the means by which a virus can transfer from one host cell to another

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40
Q

what do all viruses have (structure)

A
  • genetic material, either DNA or RNA, organised as a single molecule or as several molecules
  • a protein shell, known as a capsid, that surrounds the genetic material.
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41
Q

what is the protein shell and genetic material called together

A

nucleocapsid

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42
Q

how do viruses spread (release particles from cell)

A

The mode of release of viral particles from an infected cell may be by budding or by cell lysis.

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43
Q

what is lysis

A

destruction of cells by rupturing the membrane of the cell

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44
Q

what do prions do

A

triggers normal proteins in the brain to fold into an abnormal structure

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45
Q

what 2 forms can a prion be in

A
  • a normal harmless cellular form of the protein, denoted PrPC
  • a harmful infectious prion form of the protein, denoted PrPSc.
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46
Q

what is an incubation period

A

the time period between infection and the first appearance of the symptoms of a disease

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47
Q

what pathogen has a long incubation period

A

prions

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48
Q

do prions produce and immune response

A

no

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49
Q

what is an allergen

A

an antigen that elicits an allergic response

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50
Q

what systems do allergic response involve

A

cells from both the innate and adaptive system

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51
Q

what are the two major subdivisions of immunity

A
  • innate immunity
  • adaptive immunity
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52
Q

immunity definition

A

resistance to infectious disease

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53
Q

innate immunity definition

A

the type of immunity that is present from birth, is fast acting but not long lasting, and produces non-specific (generic) responses against classes of pathogens

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54
Q

adaptive immunity definition

A

an immune response that is specific to a particular antigen and develops through contact with an antigen

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55
Q

immunological memory definition

A

ability of the adaptive immune response to remember antigens after primary exposure

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56
Q

what are the 2 types of actions that the immune system uses to protect against infection

A
  • cell-mediated immunity
  • humoral immunity
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57
Q

cell-mediated immunity definition

A

immune response that is mediated by immune cells

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58
Q

humoral immunity definition

A

immune response mediated by soluble molecules in the blood, lymph and interstitial fluid that disable pathogens

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59
Q

what kinds of cells are all cells in the immune system

A

white blood cells

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60
Q

where do the white blood cells of the immune system derive from

A

they are derived from multipotent stem cells in the bone marrow

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61
Q

lymphocytes definition

A

class of white blood cells found in all tissues including blood, lymph nodes and spleen, and which play a role in specific immunity

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62
Q

B cells (B lymphocytes) definition

A

white blood cells that recognise antigens or pathogens and produce a large number of antibodies specific to an antigen

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63
Q

T cells (T lymphocytes) definition

A

white blood cells that mature in the thymus and participate in the adaptive immune response

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64
Q

what happens in the lymph nodes

A

B cells and T cells are activated and adaptive immune responses occur

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65
Q

what is apart of the 1st line of defense

A

physical, chemical and microbiological barriers to prevent pathogens from gaining entry to the body

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66
Q

what is apart of the 2nd line of defense

A

the actions of immune cells and soluble proteins mounting a rapid but non-specific attack against pathogens that gain entry to the body.

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67
Q

what is apart of the 3rd line of defense

A

the recognition of specific antigens by lymphocytes

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68
Q

what type of immunity do the 1st and 2nd line of defense use

A

innate immunity

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69
Q

what type of immunity does the 3rd line of defense use

A

adaptive immunity

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70
Q

What are the 3 barriers that prevent the entry of pathogens into an organism (1st line)

A
  • physical barriers
  • chemical barriers
  • microbiological (microbiota) barriers
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71
Q

physical barriers definition

A

innate barriers that act to prevent the entry of pathogens into the body

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72
Q

chemical barriers definition

A

innate barriers that use enzymes to kill pathogens and prevent invasion into a host

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73
Q

microbiological barriers definition

A

innate barriers involving normal flora in the body

74
Q

in vertebrates what is a physical barrier

A

epithelial tissue (intact skin, mucous membrane)

75
Q

what is 2 examples of chemical barriers

A

sweat and tears

76
Q

how to chemical barriers (sweat and tears) kill pathogens

A

by an enzyme called lysozyme that kills the pathogens

77
Q

what is normal flora (microbiota barrier)

A

non-­pathogenic bacteria that are the normal residents in particular regions of the body

78
Q

how do microbiota barriers stop pathogens

A

they inhibit the growth of pathogenic microbes

79
Q

what are 2 examples of plants physical barriers and how they stop pathogens

A
  • cuticle (a waxy covering on leaves that reduces water accumulation and helps prevent cells becoming infected)
  • stomata (can be closed to prevent pathogens entering)
80
Q

what are 2 chemical barriers produced by plants and how do they work

A
  • Caffeine (Toxic to fungi and insects)
  • Saponin (Plant proteins that disrupt bacterial and fungal cell membranes)
81
Q

when does the second and third line of defense start to work

A

when pathogens have entered the body (cut in skin)

82
Q

phagocytosis definition

A

bulk movement of solid material into cells where the cell engulfs a particle to form a phagosome

83
Q

what are the 3 key aspects of innate immunity

A
  • soluble proteins
  • inflammation
  • immune cells
84
Q

what are the 6 main white blood cells (immune cells)

A
  • natural killer cells (NK cells),
  • mast cells,
  • eosinophils
  • macrophages
  • neutrophils
  • dendritic cells
85
Q

what are two other names for immune cells

A
  • white blood cells
  • leukocytes
86
Q

which of the 6 immune cells are phagocytes

A
  • neutrophils
  • dendritic cells
  • macrophages
87
Q

where are neutrophils, eosinophils and NK cells found

A

in the bloodstream

88
Q

where are the phagocytic cells found

A

in the tissues

89
Q

what are the 2 granulocytes

A

eosinophils, neutrophils

90
Q

what are granulocytes

A

a type of white blood cell that has small granules inside their cytoplasm

91
Q

which immune cells are antigen presenting

A
  • dendritic cells
  • Macrophages
92
Q

simple overview of steps in phagocytosis

A
  • pathogen recognised by pattern recognition receptor
  • pathogen engulfed by phagosome
  • Lysosomes fuse with the phagosome
  • pathogen is destroyed by toxic chemicals and lysosome
  • material is discharged by exocytosis
93
Q

In these antigen presenting cells what is on their surface (specifically MHC-ll markers) once phagocytosis happens

A

some antigens or sub-units from the digested pathogen on the MHC-ll markers (activating adaptive immune system)

94
Q

macrophage info (brief)

A

they identify eliminate and engulf pathogens by phagocytosis and clear dead cells and debris. Also antigen presenting (can activate adaptive immune response)

95
Q

Neutrophils info (brief)

A

Neutrophils are abundant immune cells that are usually the first to the site of an infection, engulfing and destroying pathogens.

96
Q

dendritic cells info (brief)

A

Dendritic cells are professional antigen-presenting cells, engulfing pathogens and presenting their antigens to T cells to activate the adaptive immune response.

97
Q

eosinophils info (brief)

A

assist in defending against larger parasitic agents that are too large to be engulfed by phagocytosis. They contain granules with toxic chemicals and histamine

98
Q

NK cells info (brief)

A

lymphocytes that kill virus-infected cells through apoptosis, destroying both the cell and any viruses it contains. This prevents the virus infecting other cells.

99
Q

degranulation info for NK cells

A

There granules contain granzymes and perforin. The perforin makes holes in the cells plasma membrane allowing the granzymes to enter. This enzymes induces apoptosis

100
Q

degranulation definition

A

the process by which immune cells release various chemicals (such as histamine and antimicrobials) stored within secretory vesicles known as granules

101
Q

mast cells info (brief)

A

they are vital in the inflammatory response. As well as releasing histamines that increase vascular permeability, they also release cytokines that attract other immune cells to help destroy the pathogen. (out of granules) (also contain heparin)

102
Q

histamine definition

A

a substance involved in inflammation and allergic reactions that causes blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable to immune cells

103
Q

what is the cell-mediated immunity for the second line of defense

A

the immune cells attacking the pathogen

104
Q

what is the humoral immunity for the second line of defense

A

complement proteins and cytokines.

105
Q

what are complement proteins

A

proteins that assist other innate immune cells and can destroy bacterial cells by lysis

106
Q

what are cytokines

A

signalling molecules of the immune system

107
Q

what is an important cytokine in the innate immune system and definition

A

interferons,
proteins secreted by some cells, in response to a virus infection, that helps uninfected cells resist infection by that virus

108
Q

where are complement proteins found

A

dissolved in blood plasma

109
Q

what are the 3 things that complement proteins do

A
  • opsonising pathogens
  • recruiting immune cells involved in an inflammatory response (chemotaxis)
  • destroying bacterial pathogens by lysis
110
Q

opsonisation definition

A

the coating of the surface of pathogen cells by complement proteins, making the pathogens more susceptible to phagocytosis

111
Q

Why does opsonisation make pathogens more susceptible to phagocytosis

A

phagocytes have receptors for complement proteins on their plasma membranes, and these bind to the opsonised microbes. Allowing for direct binding to the pathogen

112
Q

what is chemotaxis

A

movement of a cell or organism in response to a chemical substance

113
Q

how does chemotaxis work for complement proteins

A

Small complement peptides that diffuse from the pathogen surface act as chemical signals, attracting immune cells involved in the inflammatory response

114
Q

what is the membrane attack complex (MAC)

A

one of the defence mechanisms resulting from activation of complement proteins that destroys pathogen cells by osmotic shock

115
Q

how does lysis work with complement proteins

A

complement proteins interact with pathogens allowing for the MAC to form on there plasma membrane. Lysis then occurs

116
Q

how does lysis work

A

The MAC inserts into the plasma membrane of the pathogen and produces a pore that allows fluid to enter, causing the pathogen cell to swell and burst — explosive death by osmotic shock

117
Q

are complement proteins inactive enzymes?

A

yes

118
Q

how are complement proteins activated (cascade attached)

A

The activation of a complement protein occurs when the protein is cut (cleaved) into two fragments — a larger activated protein and a smaller peptide fragment. This sequence of reactions starts a cascade that can neither be stopped nor reversed.

Or C3 makes direct contact with molecules on the surface of a pathogen

119
Q

process involved in complement activation (2 steps)

A
  1. The activation of an initial complement protein (known as C3) starts a sequence of reactions that take place on the surface of a pathogen. The first protein in the series enzymatically alters the next protein in the series.
  2. The product of the first reaction then activates the next enzyme in the series, which, in turn, activates the next protein, and so on.
120
Q

how do infereons work

A

Once a body cell is infected with viruses, the cell secretes interferons. That cell is doomed, but the interferons that it secretes into its surroundings act as warning signals to nearby cells so that they can prepare in advance for a possible virus infection.

121
Q

what are the roles of infereons (4)

A
  1. induce transcription of a number of specific genes that encode production of inactive forms of antiviral enzymes, inhibiting protein synthesis and destroying RNA. (only if virus succeeds in infecting the cell)
  2. make the plasma membrane less fluid (fusion with viral particles more difficult, so cant infect)
  3. cause virus-infected cells to undergo apoptosis
  4. activate immune cells,
122
Q

what are the 5 main symptoms of inflammation

A
  • redness
  • pain
  • heat
  • swelling
  • pus
123
Q

what causes the redness in inflammation

A

due to vasodilation of blood vessels, leading to red blood cells released into tissue

124
Q

what causes the pain in inflammation

A

due to the systemic response (such as fever), the stimulation of nerve endings through the release of bradykinin and histamine, and swelling putting pressure on pain receptors

125
Q

what causes the heat in inflammation

A

due to increased blood flow

126
Q

what causes the swelling in inflammation

A

due to the movement of fluid into tissues after vasodilation

127
Q

what causes the pus in inflammation

A

due to dead phagocytes and cell debris.

128
Q

what are the 3 stages of inflammation

A
  • the vascular stage, (blood vessels)
  • the cellular stage, (immune cells)
  • the resolution stage, (stopped and restored)
129
Q

what happens in the vascular stage of inflammation

A

The damaged cells release cytokines (attract neutrophils), and the mast cells release histamines (dilates blood vessels)
The blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) allowing for more immune cells to get into the infected area

130
Q

what happens in the cellular stage of inflammation (brief)

A

The cellular stage involves further intervention from immune cells, particularly phagocytic cells.

131
Q

what happens in the resolution stage of inflammation (brief)

A

Resolution involves the release of many active molecules or mediators, including anti-inflammatory cytokines.

132
Q

what are the 4 functions of the lymphatic system

A
  • production and maturation of immune cells
  • the removal of excess fluids from body tissues
  • absorption and transportation of fatty acids to the digestive system
  • allowing for the process of antigen recognition by T and B lymphocytes.
133
Q

what 4 things does the lymphatic system have in it (structure)

A
  • lymph
  • lymphatic vessels
  • primary lymphoid organs
  • secondary lymphoid organs
134
Q

what are the primary lymphoid organs

A

bone marrow and thymus

135
Q

what are the secondary lymphoid organs

A

lymph nodes and spleen

136
Q

what is lymph

A

is the fluid in the lymphatic system that gets squeezed out of blood vessels

137
Q

what happens in the bone marrow

A
  • source of pluripotent stem cells (where immune cells originate)
  • and site of maturation of B cells
138
Q

what happens in the thymus

A

site where T cells mature after being released from the bone marrow

139
Q

what happens in the spleen

A
  • filters the blood passing through it, clearing the blood of bacteria and viruses as well as worn-out red blood cells
  • contains T cells and B cells that detect and respond to infectious agents in the blood
  • contains other immune cells
140
Q

what are lymph nodes

A

Lymph nodes are the sites in which antigen recognition occurs

141
Q

what is antigen recognition

A

This is where antigen-presenting cells display their antigens to their specific T and B lymphocytes, leading to expansion of the appropriate lymphocytes for adaptive immunity

142
Q

7 steps involved with antigen presenting and initiation of immune response (adaptive immune response)

A
  1. The pathogen is engulfed into a phagosome, which fuses with a lysosome
  2. Digested by enzymes in the lysosome.
  3. Some of the fragments (digested parts of an antigen) are released by exocytosis.
  4. Some digested fragments of antigen are displayed on the MHC-II receptors on the surface the APC
  5. These APC’s move to the lymph node and present them to naïve helper T cells that carry specific receptors for that antigen. (antigen presentation)
  6. helper T cells undergo expansion, and clones are produced.
  7. Helper T cells assist other immune cells by releasing specific cytokines (named interleukins).
143
Q

what do the helper T cells cytokines do to other cells

A

These can initiate either the humoral adaptive immune system (through stimulating the clonal selection and clonal expansion of B cells) or the cell-mediated immune system (through stimulating the clonal selection and expansion of cytotoxic T cells).

144
Q

what is the function of helper T cells

A
  • activate cytotoxic T cells
  • activate B cells into becoming antibody-producing plasma cells
  • activate macrophages to remove antibody-coated pathogens by phagocytosis
145
Q

what is the two main features of the adaptive immune response

A
  • specificity
  • Immunological memory
146
Q

what is specificity (adaptive response)

A

the ability to recognise and respond to specific antigens

147
Q

3 key components of adaptive immune response

A
  • T cells and B cells
  • antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins
  • lymph nodes, organs where B cells and T cells meet foreign antigens and are activated
148
Q

what is the humoral immune response for the adaptive response

A

Involves the actions of antibodies that identify and bind to extracellular pathogens, to toxins and to other extracellular foreign antigens. Antibodies are products of special B plasma cells.

149
Q

what is the cell-mediated immune response for the adaptive response

A

involves various actions of T cells. Cytotoxic T cells eliminate body cells that are infected by pathogens or have abnormal or missing self markers. They eliminate intracellular pathogens.

150
Q

where do T cells develop

A

thymus

151
Q

where do B cells develop

A

bone marrow

152
Q

what are naive B and T cells

A

B and T cells that havent been activated

153
Q

what are the 2 types of B cells

A
  • B plasma cells
  • B memory cells
154
Q

what are the 5 steps of activation of humoral response

A
  1. new antigen reaches lymph nodes (APCs) and a specific B cell that matches will bind to the antigen on the APC
  2. Helper T cell release cytokines to activate correct T cells
  3. the plasma B cells and memory B cells are made (differentiation of naive B cell)
  4. plasma B cells secrete antibodies to the antigen
  5. Memory B cells remain in the lymphoid tissue
155
Q

what is in clonal selection

A

when the correct naive B or T cell binds to the antigen

156
Q

what is in clonal expansion

A

when the naive B or T cell differentiates

157
Q

what are the 2 regions of an antibody

A
  • variable region (ends that bind to antigens)
  • constant region (most of the antibody)
158
Q

what are the chains of an antibody

A

light and heavy chains (light short, heavy long)

159
Q

another name for variable region (antibody)

A

antigen-binding sites

160
Q

what is acronym to remember what antibodies can do to pathogens and what does it stand for

A

PIANO, Precipitation, Inflammation, Agglutination, Neutralisation and Opsonisation

161
Q

what is precipitation (antibodies)

A

bind to soluble antigens, making them insoluble, causing them to precipitate out of the solution, creating a solid (more visible)

162
Q

inflammation (antibodies)

A

release histamine, triggering inflammation

163
Q

what is agglutination (antibodies)

A

bind to the surface antigens on pathogens to form antigen–antibody complexes, causing them to clump together (more visible)

164
Q

what is neutralisation (antibodies)

A

bind to surface antigens on pathogens and form a coating that neutralises pathogens by blocking their receptors so that the pathogens cannot attach to healthy body cells and infect them

165
Q

what is opsonisation (antibodies)

A

bind to the surface antigens on pathogens to form antigen–antibody complexes and tag the pathogen for destruction. This activates phagocytes and complement proteins

166
Q

cell-mediated adaptive response definition

A

a specific response in which cytotoxic T cells destroy virus-infected cells using perforin and granzyme B

167
Q

what types of pathogens do cytotoxic T cells destroy

A

intracellular pathogens

168
Q

how do cytotoxic T cells recognise and bind to infected cells

A

the MHC-I marker

169
Q

what happens in the 6 steps of activating the cell-mediated adaptive response

A
  1. APC displaying foreign antigens on their MHC-II markers bind to their specific helper T cells
  2. Helper T cells undergo clonal selection and expansion, (effector helper T cells and memory T cells)
  3. Interleukins are secreted by the helper T cell to stimulate immature T cells.
  4. Immature cytotoxic T cells also bind to the self-cell with abnormal foreign MHC-I markers or APC displaying foreign antigens
  5. cytotoxic T cells proliferate, producing activated cytotoxic T cells and memory T cells through clonal selection and expansion
  6. cytotoxic T cells destroy the cell via apoptosis
170
Q

how do cytotoxic T cells do apoptosis

A
  1. release perforin, making a hole in the cell
  2. secrete granules (granzyme B) enter the cell and initiate apoptosis
171
Q

what are the two ways we can gain immunity depending on the source of the antibody

A
  • actively (active immunity)
  • passively (passive immunity)
172
Q

what is active immunity

A

the production of antibodies by a person in response to exposure to a particular antigen

173
Q

what is passive immunity

A

short-term immunity acquired from an external source of antibodies

174
Q

what are the two means of gaining immunity

A
  • natural immunity
  • artificial immunity
175
Q

what is natural immunity

A

a form of specific immunity in which antibodies are produced or obtained through natural means

176
Q

what is artificial immunity

A

immunity that is formed through deliberate exposure and intervention

177
Q

what is natural active immunity

A

a type of immunity in which the body produces antibodies in response to a normal infection by a pathogen

178
Q

what is artificial active immunity

A

the deliberate administration of disabled antigens to elicit the production of antibodies

179
Q

what is natural passive immunity

A

a form of immunity in which an individual receives antibodies from a natural means, such as through breastfeeding

180
Q

what is artificial passive immunity

A

the administration of antibodies to provide an immediate, specific immune response

Biology 3&4 (7 decks)

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