Unit 4

Question 1

What is patron-clientelism? Which country uses this?

Answer 1

Another component of Mexican political culture is patron-clientelism.

This led to a corrupt, authoritarian, patron-client network. An example of this would be the PRI and how they were able to retain the power and wealth of a state for most of the 20th century

Question 2

What is quid-pro-quo? What segment of the population in which country favors this?

Answer 2

Quid pro quo, a favor-trading system used by the top elites in Mexico, brought the state together despite its regional divides.

Question 3

Which country was described as a developing, third-world country prior to the 1990’s?

Answer 3

Prior to the 1990s, Mexico was described as a developing third world country. Under a one party authoritarian regime, reform seemed hopeless. Events that occurred between the 1980s and the 1990s led Mexico through an economic and political transformation, bringing about a democratic transformation that was once deemed hopeless.

Question 4

Today, Mexico could be identified as a __________

Unitary State
Federal Republic

Answer 4

While Mexico faces many problems seen in developing countries and with authoritarianism not fully removed, Mexico shows optimistic signs of transition. Other developing countries around the world might want to use Mexico as a model if they hope for a similar transformation. Today, Mexico could be identified as a Federal Republic.

Question 5

Which two revolutions led Mexico to change?

Answer 5

Two major revolutions led Mexico to become a Federal Republic. The Mexican war of independence against Spain established Mexico as an independent country in 1821. In 1911, the Mexican Revolution was fought to remove a military dictator, allowing the state to move towards a constitutional republicanism.

Question 6

What is the PRI?

Answer 6

Mexico still saw signs of authoritarianism even after the revolution in 1911. The Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI, established itself as a single political party in Mexico and controlled every aspect of political policy for most to the 20th century.

Question 7

What social cleavages exist in Mexico?

Answer 7

1) Geography–Regional divisions due to the mountains and deserts which divide the country
2) Limited land suitable for farming, reinforcing poor and rich divisions
3) Mexico’s land is plentiful with natural resources such as oil and silver. These resources provide wealth to a very small elite, not to the state as a whole.

Question 8

What are the centripetal forces in Mexico?

Answer 8

1) Mexicans have a deep sense of nationalism, and find themselves to be unified by many shared political values and traditions.

Populism and a celebration of revolution is one area that allows Mexicans to feel a sense of nationalism. Culture in Mexico celebrates revolutionary heroes, such as Father Miguel Hidalgo, Pancho Villa, and Emiliano Zapata, and their legacies.

2) 80% of the population is Catholic
3) Acceptance of Authoritarianism is another component of Mexican political culture. Authoritarianism is deep-rooted going back to the military rulers of the 19th century and the PRI bosses of the 20th century.
4) Quid pro quo, a favor-trading system used by the top elites in Mexico, brought the state together despite its regional divides.

Question 9

What are the prominent components of political culture in Mexico?

Answer 9

1) Acceptance of Authoritarianism is another component of Mexican political culture. Authoritarianism is deep-rooted going back to the military rulers of the 19th century and the PRI bosses of the 20th century.
2) Another component of Mexican political culture is patron-clientelism.
3) Quid pro quo, a favor-trading system used by the top elites in Mexico, brought the state together despite its regional divides.

Question 10

Spanish Conquistador _________ captured the __________ capital of _____________ and imposed direct rule in _________.

Answer 10

Beginning with colonial rule in 1519 until today. Spanish Conquistador Hernan Cortes captured the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and imposed direct rule in 1519. Spanish soldiers began mixing with the native population due to restrictions that prohibited their families from coming to the new world.

Question 11

Who are the Mestizo and what percentage of the population are they in Mexico?

Answer 11

This mixture of European and Native ancestry became called Mestizo, and today the Mestizo make up more than 60% of the population in Mexico

Question 12

Who are the Amerindians and what percentage of the population are they in Mexico?

Answer 12

Amerindians, who are the descendants of the native population, make up the most of the remaining 40% of the population in Mexico

Question 13

Who were the Peninsulares and the Criollos?

Who were the Mulatos?

Answer 13

The Peninsulares, who were the Spanish colonial aristocrats from Europe were on top. Followed by the Criollos, those of European descendants, but born in Mexico. Next came the Mestizos, followed by the Mulatos, who were mixed with European and African slave descent. Then came the Native Americans, and finally the African Slaves.

Question 14

In _________ Mexico began its battle for independence. Led by father _____________ _________, a Spanish priest, and an army of ____________farmers fighting for the right to grow crops.

Mexico’s independence was established in __________.

Answer 14

In 1810, Mexico began its battle against Spain for independence. Led by father Miguel Hidalgo, a Spanish priest, and an army of about 90,000 farmers fighting for the right to grow crops.

Hidalgo and his army did lose the battle. And Hidalgo was executed as a result. Hidalgo’s death was not in vain. A revolutionary fever swept over Latin America, fueled by the desire to overthrow colonial rule. Spain finally recognized Mexico’s independence in 1821. Following

Question 15

What were Caudillos and Camarillos?

Answer 15

Caudillos, or generals would lead armed bands, known as Camarillos to fight against rival groups in effort to gain control of territories within Mexico. Leadership was constantly changing. Between 1833 and 1855, Mexico had 36 different presidents. Antonia Lopez de Santa Anna was the president during this time span ten different times.

Question 16

Which territories did Mexico lose to the US?

Answer 16

The United States used this time of unrest as an opportunity to seize north and western territory in Mexico. In 1845, Texas was annexed. 1848 marked the Mexican cession following the Mexican-American War. And in 1853 the Gadsden Purchase took place. Losing so much territory to the United States was not easy for Mexico.

Question 17

In 1864, ____________ of France invaded and declared _________ as the emperor of Mexico.

Answer 17

And the instability of the state persisted. Land owners in Mexico with ties to European nobility were labeled conservatives and engaged in political battles against liberal republicans, whose goal is to achieve a constitutional democracy in Mexico. The conservatives seemed to win the power struggle in 1864 when Napoleon the third of France invaded Mexico and declared Maximilian I as emperor of Mexico.

Question 18

In 1864, ____________ of France invaded and declared _________ as the emperor of Mexico, reinforcing a (liberal, conservative) government.

Answer 18

And the instability of the state persisted. Land owners in Mexico with ties to European nobility were labeled conservatives and engaged in political battles against liberal republicans, whose goal is to achieve a constitutional democracy in Mexico. The conservatives seemed to win the power struggle in 1864 when Napoleon the third of France invaded Mexico and declared Maximilian I as emperor of Mexico.

Question 19

By 1867 (liberal, conservative) general _______________ overthrew the emperor and restored the Mexican Republic.

In the 1870s, _____________, another general decided to plot a rebellion and was successful in overthrowing the government. He then ran successfully for President in 1876, and continued to control the country for the next 35 years.

Answer 19

By 1867 liberal general Benito Juarez overthrew Maximilian and restored the Mexican Republic. Mexico’s instability continued under Juarez. In the 1870s, a general in Juarez’ army decided to plot a rebellion and was successful in overthrowing the government. The general who staged the Rebellion was Porfirio Diaz. Diaz successfully ran for President in 1876, and continued to control the country for the next 35 years.

Question 20

In the late 1800’s, Mexico found stability and economic growth. However this vast economic growth created _________ in Mexico.

The President controlled all economic decisions and began to allow foreign investment into Mexican industry, especially mining. Peasants’ land was taken away to allow room for mining operations, and indigenous groups saw their farm land seized and sold off to private owners.

In ________ citizens pushed for a presidential election to remove the President from office. He tried to block the election taking place, creating a swell in opposition.

Answer 20

Under Diaz, Mexico found stability and economic growth. However this vast economic growth created inequality in Mexico. Diaz controlled all economic decisions and began to allow foreign investment into Mexican industry, especially mining. Peasants’ land was taken away to allow room for mining operations, and indigenous groups saw their farm land seized and sold off to private owners.

Those with ties to Diaz’s regime became extremely wealthy as a result but this never trickled down to the masses in Mexico. Many Mexicans grew frustrated with this inequality. In 1910, citizens pushed for a presidential election to remove Diaz from office. Diaz tried to block the election taking place, creating a swell in opposition.

Question 21

The president was finally forced to leave the presidency in 1911. For nearly a decade after he abdicated the throne, Mexico faced instability and a civil war between rival Camarillo factions competing for power. Famous revolutionary generals during this time were __________ and ___________. Both generals were defeated and constitutionalists in the north drafted the ______________, which continues to be the governing document of Mexico today.

Answer 21

Diaz was finally forced to leave the presidency in 1911. For nearly a decade after Diaz abdicated the throne, Mexico faced instability and a civil war between rival Camarillo factions competing for power. Famous revolutionary generals during this time were Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Both Zapata and Villa were defeated and constitutionalists in the north drafted the Constitution of 1917, which continues to be the governing document of Mexico today.

Question 22

Even after the passing of the constitution, violence and unrest continued in Mexico. Revolutionary generals looking to end the violence came together in 1929 and created the ______________ Party, or PRI. Agreeing to share the power amongst themselves, the first three presidents of Mexico were the generals who led the Constitutional Forces.

Answer 22

Even after the passing of the constitution, violence and unrest continued in Mexico. Revolutionary generals looking to end the violence came together in 1929 and created the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI. Agreeing to share the power amongst themselves, the first three presidents of Mexico were the generals who led the Constitutional Forces.

Question 23

Each president was allowed to serve a _____ year term known as a _________, agreeing that they would willingly step down following the one term and give the power to the next leader. The _____________ party was an authoritarian one party rule who would go on to dominate Mexico for 71 years.

Answer 23

Each president was allowed to serve a six year term known as a Sexenio, agreeing that they would willingly step down following the one term and give the power to the next leader. The Institutional Revolutionary party was an authoritarian one party rule who would go on to dominate Mexico for 71 years.

Question 24

The most active ________ was under the rule of ____________, who was president of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. Mexico saw reform under his leadership. His reform agenda included ______ reform, ______ reform, and ____________. He used his power to acquire large plots of land called ____________ from private land owners and transformed them into ejidos which were _____________________.

Answer 24

The most active Sexenio was under the rule of Lazaro Cardenas, who was president of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. Mexico saw reform under the leadership of Cardenas. Cardenas’ reform agenda included, land reform, labor reform, and nationalization. Cardenas used his power to acquire large plots of land called Haciendas from private land owners and transformed them into ejido which were agricultural collectives.

Essentially land was redistributed from land owners to peasants, except peasants did not gain full ownership of the land. This redistribution of land allowed peasants to stop paying rent to land owners and allowed them to keep their proceeds from crop sales. Cardenas worked to reform labor in Mexico by encouraging the formation of peasant and workers unions.

Question 25

What is an ejido?

Answer 25

An ejido (from Latin exitum) is an area of communal land used for agriculture in which community members have usufruct rights rather than ownership rights to land, which in Mexico is held by the Mexican state. People awarded ejidos in the modern era farm them individually in parcels and collectively maintain communal holdings with government oversight. Although the system of ejidos was based on an understanding of the preconquest Aztec calpulli and the medieval Spanish ejido,[1][2][3] in the twentieth century ejidos are government-controlled. After the Mexican Revolution, ejidos were created by the Mexican state to grant lands to peasant communities as a means to stem social unrest. The awarding of ejidos made peasants dependent on the government, with the creation of a bureaucracy to register and regulate them through the National Agrarian Registry (Registro Agrario Nacional). As Mexico prepared to enter the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1991, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari declared the end of awarding ejidos and allowed existing ejidos to be rented or sold, ending land reform in Mexico.[4]

Question 26

What are usufructus rights?

Answer 26

Usufruct is a limited real right (or in rem right) found in civil-law and mixed jurisdictions that unites the two property interests of usus and fructus:

Usus (use) is the right to use or enjoy a thing possessed, directly and without altering it.
Fructus (fruit, in a figurative sense) is the right to derive profit from a thing possessed: for instance, by selling crops, leasing immovables or annexed movables, taxing for entry, and so on.
A usufruct is either granted in severalty or held in common ownership, as long as the property is not damaged or destroyed. The third civilian property interest is abusus (literally abuse), the right to alienate the thing possessed, either by consuming or destroying it (e.g., for profit), or by transferring it to someone else (e.g., sale, exchange, gift). Someone enjoying all three rights has full ownership.

Question 27

___________ also enforced Article 123 of the constitution which guaranteed rights of workers, including the eight hour workday. Finally, ___________ worked to create nationalism within Mexico. Foreign businesses were now forced to leave the country and their property was taken away. The most significant effort toward nationalism was the formation of ___________, a state-owned oil company that was formed after the state claimed ownership of all petroleum reserves.

Answer 27

Cardenas also enforced Article 123 of the constitution which guaranteed rights of workers, including the eight hour workday. Finally, Cardenas worked to create nationalism within Mexico. Foreign businesses were now forced to leave the country and their property was taken away. The most significant effort toward nationalism was the formation of PEMEX, a state-owned oil company that was formed after the state claimed ownership of all petroleum reserves.

Question 28

Mexico implemented a policy of _________________________________, or ____, to offset the losses faced by removing foreign investors. Foreign products under the ____ face high tariffs and import quotas in order to incentivize Mexicans to buy domestic products. By 1946, all of the founding generals of the PRI had completed their ________ and a new generation of leaders were emerging within the ______.

One of these new generation leaders was President ________________. He reversed Cardenas’ _________ (agricultural collective) program and ____. He encouraged entrepreneurship and invited foreign investors back to Mexico. During the next few decades, economic policy in Mexico shifted back, and forth between Cardenas’ leftist model, and ___________’s right leaning model. By the 1970s the Politicos from the early generation of the ____ _____ party began to lose power to a new generation of educated technical experts.

Answer 28

Mexico implemented a policy of Import Substitution Industrialization, or ISI, to offset the losses faced by removing foreign investors. Foreign products under the ISI face high tariffs and import quotas in order to incentivize Mexicans to buy domestic products. By 1946, all of the founding generals of the PRI had completed their Sexenios and a new generation of leaders were emerging within the PRI.

One of these new generation leaders was President Miguel Aleman. Aleman reversed Cardenas’ ejido program and ISI. He encouraged entrepreneurship and invited foreign investors back to Mexico. During the next few decades, economic policy in Mexico shifted back, and forth between Cardenas’ leftist model, and Aleman’s right leaning model. By the 1970s the Politicos from the early generation of PRI began to lose power to a new generation of educated technical experts.

Question 29

As the technicos gained power of the party, they worked to achieve economic reform through ______________, ____________ of nationalized industries, ____________ and ______________, paving the way for the ______________ _____________ of the 1980s. This was a brief time of economic successes in Mexico.

The GDP saw significant growth, and Mexico was seen as a model country to developing countries looking to build their economy. The ___________________ in 1982 ended this time of growth in Mexico. Mexico was faced with debts that they could no longer repay. And the state was forced to ask for assistance from the International Monetary Fund, or IMF.

The IMF demanded a ______________________ in Mexico in exchange for loans. This program required Mexico to
1) ________________________,
2) _______________________,
3) __________________________, and
4) _____________________________.
These reforms were carried out under the leadership of President ____________________.

Answer 29

As the technicos gained power of the party, they worked to achieve economic reform through private entrepreneurship, privatization of nationalized industries, free trade and limited government. Paving the way for the Mexican Miracle of the 1980s. The Mexican Miracle of the 1980s was a brief time of economic successes in Mexico.

The GDP saw significant growth, and Mexico was seen as a model country to developing countries looking to build their economy. The collapse in oil prices in 1982 ended this time of growth in Mexico. Mexico was faced with debts that they could no longer repay. And the state was forced to ask for assistance from the International Monetary Fund, or IMF.

The IMF demanded a structural adjustment program in Mexico in exchange for loans. The Structural Adjustment Program required Mexico to
1) end annual budget deficits,
2) cut government spending,
3) privatize many state-owned companies, and
4) further open borders with foreign competition.
These reforms were carried out under the leadership of President Miguel de la Madrid.

Question 30

And Mexico faced a decade of hardship that became known as ______________. ____ candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari became President of Mexico following Madrid, but this election was marred with vote rigging. When the results of the 1988 election were being counted, early results showed that PRI party was losing the race.

Computers mysteriously crashed and PRI candidate Salinas was announced as the winner. The administration of Salinas lacked _______________ from the start. And many Mexicans viewed his administration the most corrupt in Mexico’s history. Despite this, Salinas did successfully establish some notable reforms during his presidency. He signed the ____________________, with the United States and Canada, and _________________ major state-owned banking and telephone companies.

Answer 30

And Mexico faced a decade of hardship that became known as the lost decade. PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari became President of Mexico following Madrid, but this election was marred with vote rigging. When the results of the 1988 election were being counted, early results showed that PRI party was losing the race.

Computers mysteriously crashed and PRI candidate Salinas was announced as the winner. The administration of Salinas lacked legitimacy from the start. And many Mexicans viewed his administration the most corrupt in Mexico’s history. Despite this, Salinas did successfully establish some notable reforms during his presidency. He signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA, with the United States and Canada, and privatized major state-owned banking and telephone companies.

Question 31

The privatization of __________, Mexico’s telephone company was permeated with corruption. Carlos Slim Helu, one of the richest man in the world and a good friend of Salinas acquired a large portion of _____________ shares without paying for them up front. He instead was able to use revenue from the company to pay for his shares in yearly installments.

By 1990, domestic and international pressures pushed the government of Mexico to establish the ______________________________, an independent election regulating body to ensure that future elections would not carry the same stigma that Salinas’ did. The 1994 election was considered to be the most free and fair election that Mexico had ever seen up until that point.

Still, the ____ candidate Ernesto Zedillo won. The election of __________ and the __________________ in 2000 was a milestone for democracy in Mexico. After 71 years of _______ rule, _______ was proof that another party could win in this new system.

Answer 31

The privatization of Telmex, Mexico’s telephone company was permeated with corruption. Carlos Slim Helu, one of the richest man in the world and a good friend of Salinas acquired a large portion of Telmex shares without paying for them up front. He instead was able to use revenue from the company to pay for his shares in yearly installments.

By 1990, domestic and international pressures pushed the government of Mexico to establish the Federal Election Institute, an independent election regulating body to ensure that future elections would not carry the same stigma that Salinas’ did. The 1994 election was considered to be the most free and fair election that Mexico had ever seen up until that point.

Still, the PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo won. The election of Vincente Fox and the National Action Party in 2000 was a milestone for democracy in Mexico. After 71 years of PRI rule, Fox was proof that another party could win in this new system.

Question 32

Today’s population in Mexico is concentrated in cities. Nearly ____________% of Mexicans live in urban areas as the country has moved toward industrialization and modernization. Over the last few decades, job opportunities have increased in cities. The signing of NAFTA saw many international firms relocated their factories in Mexico, thanks to tariff-free exporting to the United States and the low wages required by Mexican labor.

Urban citizens in Mexico tend to have

1) Higher __________________.
2) Their voting behaviors are different as well. Urban voters tend to cast their votes for the ______ party on the right and the _____ party on the left. Urban voters are more likely to support reforms, even if that means voting for a candidate that may not bring federal money to their cities.

Rural voters continue to support the _______. They seem to be looking for a short-term fix, and feel that the _______ will be able to provide that with their ________-client network.

Answer 32

Today’s population in Mexico is concentrated in cities. Nearly 80% of Mexicans live in urban areas as the country has moved toward industrialization and modernization. Over the last few decades, job opportunities have increased in cities. The signing of NAFTA saw many international firms relocated their factories in Mexico, thanks to tariff-free exporting to the United States and the low wages required by Mexican labor.

Urban citizens in Mexico tend to have higher literacy rates than those who live in rural regions. Their voting behaviors are different as well.

Urban voters tend to cast their votes for the PAN (National Action) party on the right and the PRD party on the left. Urban voters are more likely to support reforms, even if that means voting for a candidate that may not bring federal money to their cities.

Rural voters continue to support the PRI. They seem to be looking for a short-term fix, and feel that the PRI will be able to provide that with their patron-client network.

Question 33

Another significant social cleavage in Mexico is social class, as the state is deeply divided economically.

The _________ coefficient of Mexico is around 0.49 which is one of the highest in the world for a country this large. The signing of ___________ was a leading cause to rising inequality during the 1990’s. __________ brought in new job opportunities to northern and border areas of Mexico. This opportunity did not spread through the rest of the state.

Mexico’s top _____% earn close to ______% of all the nation’s income, more than 25 times the income of those in the bottom 10%. Despite Mexico having a GDP of more than $_________ per capita, 30% of Mexico’s population continues to live on less than $5 per day.

Answer 33

Another significant social cleavage in Mexico is social class, as the state is deeply divided economically.

The Gini coefficient of Mexico is around 0.49 which is one of the highest in the world for a country this large. The signing of NAFTA was a leading cause to rising inequality during the 1990’s. NAFTA brought in new job opportunities to northern and border areas of Mexico. This opportunity did not spread through the rest of the state

In economics, the Gini coefficient (/ˈdʒiːni/ JEE-nee), sometimes called the Gini index or Gini ratio, is a measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income inequality or wealth inequality within a nation or any other group of people. It was developed by the Italian statistician and sociologist Corrado Gini.

The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution (for example, levels of income). A Gini coefficient of zero expresses perfect equality, where all values are the same (for example, where everyone has the same income). A Gini coefficient of one (or 100%) expresses maximal inequality among values (e.g., for a large number of people where only one person has all the income or consumption and all others have none, the Gini coefficient will be nearly one).[3][4]

Mexico’s top 10% earn close to 40% of all the nation’s income, more than 25 times the income of those in the bottom 10%. Despite Mexico having a GDP of more than $10,000 per capita, 30% of Mexico’s population continues to live on less than $5 per day.

Question 34

Mexico finds ethnicity to be a significant social cleavage in the state.

65% of population in Mexico is _________. 17.5% of Mexico’s population is ___________, and the remaining 16.5% of Mexico’s population identify as white or European descent. The mestizo population in Mexico control most of the state’s wealth and power. Mestizos live in all parts of the country, but most predominantly in the prosperous cities in the north.

The __________ in Mexico live throughout the country, but are mostly concentrated in the ____________. This population tends to be poorer on average than other groups and feel that they have no voice in Mexican policy making as it is dominated by the _________ culture. The ________________ movement is evidence of Amerindian struggles.

This _____________ Movement is an armed resistance group that has worked to establish municipalities with leftist ambitions in southern Mexico.

The cleavages in Mexico are ___________ and make political conflict more likely between the groups. Mexico has seen growing opportunities for political participation as the state transitions to a pluralist democracy.

Answer 34

Mexico finds ethnicity to be a significant social cleavage in the state.

65% of population in Mexico is Mestizo. 17.5% of Mexico’s population is Amerindian, and the remaining 16.5% of Mexico’s population identify as white or European descent. The mestizo population in Mexico control most of the state’s wealth and power. Mestizos live in all parts of the country, but most predominantly in the prosperous cities in the north.

The Amerindians in Mexico live throughout the country, but are mostly concentrated in the south. The Aamerindian population tend to be poorer on average than other groups and feel that they have no voice in Mexican policy making as it’s dominated by the Mestizo culture. The EZLN Zapatista Movement is evidence of Amerindian struggles.

This EZLN Zapatista Movement is an armed resistance group that has worked to establish municipalities with leftist ambitions in southern Mexico.

The cleavages in Mexico are coinciding and make political conflict more likely between the groups. Mexico has seen growing opportunities for political participation as the state transitions to a pluralist democracy.

Question 35

Civil Society is one area of political participation in Mexico. Under the ____, groups are categorized as ______________ and ____________. These groups were allowed to voice their concerns as long as they did not challenge the _____. Groups such as the ______________ party who opposed the ______would publicly speak their frustrations with the ______.

As the Mexican political system developed in the later 20 century more Mexicans became involved in civil society. Today, civil society in Mexico is pluralistic. Citizens are free to join groups without much state restriction. Civil society organizations have grown rapidly in Mexico over the last couple of decades. In 1994, there were about 2,500 civil society organizations.

By 2008, that number reached over 10,000. 25% of these organizations are ___________ showing the important role that the Catholic Church plays in the country.

Answer 35

Civil Society is one area of political participation in Mexico. Under the PRI, groups are categorized as labor Peasant and middle class business. These groups were allowed to voice their concerns as long as they did not challenge the PRI. Groups such as the national action party who opposed the PRI would publicly speak their frustrations with the PRI.

As the Mexican political system developed in the later 20 century more Mexicans became involved in civil society. Today, civil society in Mexico is pluralistic. Citizens are free to join groups without much state restriction. Civil society organizations have grown rapidly in Mexico over the last couple of decades. In 1994, there were about 2,500 civil society organizations.

By 2008, that number reached over 10,000. 25% of these organizations are religious showing the important role that the Catholic Church plays in the country. [BLANK_AUDIO] Another form of political participation in Mexico is through protests. Some of the most noteworthy protests that have occurred in Mexico in recent history were at Tlatlelolco Plaza in 1968, the 2006 election, and the Yo Soy #132.

Question 36

What is Civil Society?

Answer 36

United Nations: Civil society is the “third sector” of society, along with government and business. It comprises civil society organizations and non-governmental organizations. The UN recognizes the importance of partnering with civil society, because it advances the Organization’s ideals, and helps support its work. Here are some useful websites for members of civil society and also for those interested in the work of the UN.

World Health Organization: Civil society refers to the space for collective action around shared interests, purposes and values, generally distinct from government and commercial for-profit actors. Civil society includes charities, development NGOs, community groups, women’s organizations, faith-based organizations, professional associations, trade unions, social movements, coalitions and advocacy groups. However civil society is not homogeneous and the boundaries between civil society and government or civil society and commercial actors can be blurred. There is certainly no one ‘civil society’ view, and civil society actors need to contend with similar issues of representativeness and legitimacy as those of other representatives and advocates.

Question 37

Another form of political participation in Mexico is through protests. Some of the most noteworthy protests that have occurred in Mexico in recent history were at

1) ____________ in 1968
2) The _________ election, and
3) _____________-# __________.

Answer 37

Another form of political participation in Mexico is through protests. Some of the most noteworthy protests that have occurred in Mexico in recent history were at

1) Tlatlelolco Plaza in 1968
2) the 2006 election,
3) and the Yo Soy #132.

In 1968, Mexico was writing the country to host the Olympics and spending about $150,000,000 to do so. Mexican farmers and workers unions began protesting during the same year believing that the government was failing to pay attention to their needs. These rallies were highly visible and the government did not want them to interfere with the games.

Many union leaders were arrested. University students began to join the cause, which resulted in schools being raided by the government in what the government called gang activity. More and more student groups throughout Mexico joined the action, challenging the PRI’s repression. On October 2nd, 1968, more than 10,000 students peacefully protested in Tlatelolco plaza.

The Mexican government sent 5,000 troops to monitor the protests. More than 1,200 students were arrested. And between 30 and 300 students were killed by the soldiers. The state media in Mexico blamed the incident on armed students who started a firefight with the armed forces. In 2001, the truth of the incident came out with the release of reports and records that proved that the so called armed students were actually members of the Presidential guard that were instructed to fire at the military to provoke the massacre.

Another notable protest in Mexico occurred during the 2006 election. PAN candidate Felipe Calderon narrowly defeated the PRD candidate Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador by only 250,000 votes. The closest election in Mexico’s history. Obrador protested the results and demanded a recount, accusing PAN of rigging the election. Obrador staged rallies in Mexico City, and crowds between 50,000 and 3 million occupied the city center for 47 days.

The Federal Election Tribunal confirmed the initial count, leading Obrador to threaten the use of his crowds to prevent the imposition of Calderón upon the people. He was unsuccessful in his efforts, and Calderón went on to the Presidency.

Yo Soy Number 132 represents the first time, that social media was used to organize a major protest in Mexico. During the 2012 election, Televisa, the largest media company in Mexico, covered the election with bias in favor of the PRI candidate, Enrique Pena Nieto. During his time as Governor, Pena Nieto put a stop to a protest that resulted in multiple deaths of participants.

During his presidential campaign rally, at a university, a group of students protested the incident during Pena Nieto’s time as governor. Both Televisa and Pena Nieto tried to discredit the student protestors by saying that they were not students at all, but instead professional radical activists. The 131 students who attended the protest posted a video on the Internet of them holding up their student ID’s proving their student status.

This video went viral and led to millions of Mexicans to protest declaring Yo Soy number 132, which translates to I am number 132.

Question 38

What are the four political parties of Mexico? (Some say there are only three parties)

Answer 38

The politics of Mexico are dominated by four political parties: Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), National Action Party (PAN), Democratic Revolution Party (PRD),[1] and the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA).

Founded in 1929 as the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (“National Revolutionary Party”), PRI has dominated Mexican politics for over 70 years.[2]

PAN was founded in 1939, but it did not win its first governorship until 1989; its candidates won the presidency in 2000 and 2006.[3]

The beginnings of PRD go back to 1988 when dissident members of PRI decided to challenge the leadership and nominated Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas for president of Mexico. Cardenas lost in a highly contested election, but a new political party was born and the party emerged as a third force in Mexican politics, even though they have never captured the presidency.[4]

MORENA grew out of a dispute between Andrés Manuel López Obrador and other leaders of PRD after his loss in the 2012 presidential election. MORENA won its official recognition in 2014, and dominated the 2018 elections.[5]

Question 39

The politics of Mexico take place in a framework of a ____________ presidential representative democratic republic whose government is based on a congressional system, whereby the President of Mexico is both head of _________ and head of ___________ and of a multi-party system. The federal government represents the United Mexican States and is divided into three branches: executive, legislative and judicial, as established by the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, published in 1917. The constituent states of the federation must also have a ___________ form of government based on a congressional system as established by their respective constitutions.

The __________ power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the President, advised by a cabinet of secretaries that are independent of the legislature.

___________ power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies.

___________ power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals.

Answer 39

The politics of Mexico take place in a framework of a federal presidential representative democratic republic whose government is based on a congressional system, whereby the President of Mexico is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. The federal government represents the United Mexican States and is divided into three branches: executive, legislative and judicial, as established by the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, published in 1917.

The constituent states of the federation must also have a republican form of government based on a congressional system as established by their respective constitutions.

The executive power is exercised by the executive branch, which is headed by the President, advised by a cabinet of secretaries that are independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested upon the Congress of the Union, a two-chamber legislature comprising the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies. Judicial power is exercised by the judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, the Council of the Federal Judiciary and the collegiate, unitary and district tribunals.

Question 40

What are the linkage institutions in Mexico? (5)

Answer 40

These linkage institutions are political parties, elections, state institutions, interest groups, and the media.

Question 41

Mexican political parties

PAN is on the _____________, PRI is in the ___________ and the _____________ is on the left side of the spectrum.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party, or the PRI, was created following the ______________ by a group of _____________ who united their power to rule Mexico. The PRI led Mexico into a one party state for 71 years, ruling continually from 1929 to 2000.

After their first presidential election loss in 2000, the PRI still continue to govern at the _________ level. By 2009, the PRI gained control of the national legislature, and regained the presidency in 2012, when ______________ was elected. The PRI can be characterized as a___________ political party. In recent years, the PRI has embraced capitalist and global reforms.

This party also advocates welfare policies. Working class and rural ___________ are most likely to vote for PRI candidates.

Answer 41

Mexican political parties

PAN is on the right, PRI is in the center, and the PRD is on the left side of the spectrum. The Institutional Revolutionary Party, or the PRI, was created following the Mexican Revolution by a group of Caldeos who united their power to rule Mexico. The PRI led Mexico into a one party state for 71 years, ruling continually from 1929 to 2000.

After their first presidential election loss in 2000, the PRI still continue to govern at the state level. By 2009, the PRI gained control of the national legislature, and regained the presidency in 2012, when Enrique Pena Nieto was elected. The PRI can be characterized as a centrist political party. In recent years, the PRI has embraced capitalist and global reforms.

This party also advocates welfare policies. Working class and rural mestizos are most likely to vote for PRI candidates.

Question 42

The National Action Party, or PAN, was created when business leaders grew frustrated with the repression and corporatism of PRI. PAN has acted as the ________ wing challenge to PRI, and won both the 2000 and 2006 (candidate ____________) presidential elections.

This _________ leaning party has an economic policy that supports

1) ___________ of national industries,
2) trade _____________,
3) _________ government, and
4) ________ enterprise.

PAN is socially _________- as well, with stances against abortion and same-sex marriage. PAN finds most of its support from the

1) _____________ region of Mexico,
2) the ___________ church,
3) __________ workers, and
4) the ________ ____________ class citizens.

Answer 42

The National Action Party, or PAN, was created when business leaders grew frustrated with the repression and corporatism of PRI. PAN has acted as the right wing challenge to PRI, and won both the 2000 (Vicente Fox) and 2006 (Felipe Calderon) presidential elections.

This right leaning party has an economic policy that supports privatization of national industries, trade liberalization, small government, and free enterprise. PAN is socially conservative as well, with stances against abortion and same-sex marriage. PAN finds most of its support from the northern region of Mexico, the Catholic church, private sector workers, and the middle upper class citizens.

Question 43

The third political party in Mexico is the _______________, or ______. This is the __________ opposition to the PRI. The ___ supports human rights and social justice for the disadvantaged in Mexico. The __________ region of Mexico, where the poor and indigenous Mexicans are concentrated, tend to be the biggest supporters of this party.

Answer 43

The third political party in Mexico is the Democratic Revolutionary Party, or PRD. This is the leftist opposition to the PRI. The PRD supports human rights and social justice for the disadvantaged in Mexico. The southern region of Mexico, where the poor and indigenous Mexicans are concentrated, tend to be the biggest supporters of this party.

Question 44

Another linkage institution in Mexico is __________. Mexico is a democratic federal state, where people elect officials on many different levels and in different branches as well. Mexico has
1) _____________elections, (every ______ years)
2) _____________elections, and
3) ________ elections.
.
Mexico’s modern three party system has made it difficult for one candidate to win a majority of the votes.

Answer 44

Another linkage institution in Mexico is elections. Mexico is a democratic federal state, where people elect officials on many different levels and in different branches as well. Mexico has

1) presidential elections,
2) legislative elections, and
3) state elections.

Presidential elections occur every six years in Mexico, using a single-round first-past-the-post plurality race. Mexico’s modern three party system has made it difficult for one candidate to win a majority of the votes.

In a first-past-the-post (FPTP or FPP; sometimes formally called single-member plurality voting or SMP) electoral system, voters cast their vote for a candidate of their choice, and the candidate who receives the most votes wins (irrespective of vote share). FPTP is a plurality voting method, and is primarily used in systems that use single-member electoral divisions. FPTP is used as the primary form of allocating seats for legislative elections in about a third of the world’s countries, mostly in the English-speaking world.

Question 45

Presidents in Mexico are limited to ________ term in office. Legislative elections are a mixture of a single member district system and a proportional representation system. The Congress of the Union of Mexico has two separate houses,

1) the ___________ of _____________ (which consists of ____ members who are elected to serve a ____ year term.)
2) and the ____________ of ____________.

Answer 45

Presidents in Mexico are limited to one term in office. Legislative elections are a mixture of a single member district system and a proportional representation system. The Congress of the Union of Mexico has two separate houses, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate of the Republic. The Chamber of Deputies consists of 500 members who are elected to serve a three year term.

Question 46

_______ members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected through ______________ constituencies, based on the candidate that gets the ___________.

_____ members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by ____________ representation from a party list.

The other house is the Senate of the Republic, which has ___ Senators. Each of Mexico’s ___ states and the federal district, Mexico City, elect ________ senators, which take up the first 96 seats.

Here is how the _____ senators are chosen. Each party can run two candidates in each state for the office of senator. These candidates must run as a pair. The party that wins the most votes in a state will send both of their candidates into office as senators. The third seat in each state goes to the party that received the second most votes.

They use an official party list that is submitted in advance to choose the candidate to take the office. 30% of the candidates on the official party list must be women. The 32 seats that are left are awarded based on the proportional representation system, depending on how the party performs in a a nationwide vote.

Answer 46

300 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected through single-member district constituencies, based on the candidate that gets the plurality.

200 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by proportional representation from a party list. (The largest remainder method requires the numbers of votes for each party to be divided by a quota representing the number of votes required for a seat (i.e. usually the total number of votes cast divided by the number of seats, or some similar formula). The result for each party will usually consist of an integer part plus a fractional remainder. Each party is first allocated a number of seats equal to their integer. This will generally leave some seats unallocated: the parties are then ranked on the basis of the fractional remainders, and the parties with the largest remainders are each allocated one additional seat until all the seats have been allocated. This gives the method its name.))

The other house is the Senate of the Republic, which has 128 Senators. Each of Mexico’s 31 states and the federal district, Mexico City, elect three senators, which take up the first 96 seats.

Here is how the three senators are chosen. Each party can run two candidates in each state for the office of senator. These candidates must run as a pair. The party that wins the most votes in a state will send both of their candidates into office as senators. The third seat in each state goes to the party that received the second most votes.

They use an official party list that is submitted in advance to choose the candidate to take the office. 30% of the candidates on the official party list must be women. The 32 seats that are left are awarded based on the PR system, depending on how the party performs in a a nationwide vote.

Question 47

The third type of election in Mexico is state elections. At the state level, Mexico elects a governor every ______ years to each of its 31 states. The election years are staggered state-by-state. Voters can also elect local officials, such as mayors as well as deputies, to state congresses during state elections.

Answer 47

The third type of election in Mexico is state elections. At the state level, Mexico elects a governor every six years to each of its 31 states. The election years are staggered state-by-state. Voters can also elect local officials, such as mayors as well as deputies, to state congresses during state elections.

Question 48

Interest groups in Mexico have changed significantly. Limitations on interest groups during PRI’s arrangement of state corporatism are now gone. Reforms in the 1980s and 1990s allowed independent pluralist groups to come to life. The ___________________ is an example of this. The ____ was the workers’ union of PRI corporatism.

Using its position to better the lives of workers from 1940 to 1982, unions began to lose power within the PRI, which led the ______ to act more conservatively. As negotiations started favoring the employers more and more often, workers started joining independent unions instead.

The ____________ in Mexico was constantly manipulated to favor the PRI during their time in power.

They were ___________ owned and would receive subsidy payments from the PRI for positive coverage. Due to the financial incentives given by the PRI, media outlets found it necessary to work closely with the PRI.

The state had limited ability to pay for media coverage in the 1980s. As a result, the media became more diverse and independent from the PRI.

Answer 48

Interest groups in Mexico have changed significantly. Limitations on interest groups during PRI’s arrangement of state corporatism are now gone. Reforms in the 1980s and 1990s allowed independent pluralist groups to come to life. The Confederation of Mexican Workers is an example of this. The CTM was the workers’ union of PRI corporatism.

Using its position to better the lives of workers from 1940 to 1982, unions began to lose power within the PRI, which led the CTM to act more conservatively. As negotiations started favoring the employers more and more often, workers started joining independent unions instead. The media in Mexico was constantly manipulated to favor the PRI during their time in power.

The media was privately owned and would receive subsidy payments from the PRI for positive coverage. Due to the financial incentives given by the PRI, media outlets found it necessary to work closely with the PRI. The state had limited ability to pay for media coverage in the 1980s. As a result, the media became more diverse and independent from the PRI.

Question 49

Mexico’s Constitution of ______ created the state institutions:

1) _____________
2) _____________
3) _____________
4) bureaucracy,
5) ______________, and
6) ________________

The president of Mexico acts as the head of _____ and the ______ of government.

The Constitution has identified that the President has the power to

1) appoint the members of the ________and Mexican ___________,
2) command the ______, _________, and ________.
3) Declare ________ and _________ with prior authorization of Congress,
4) negotiate ______________,
5) issue ____________ of law,
6) ___________ Supreme Court justices,
7) ____________ laws passed by Congress, and
8) _________ bills to Congress.

The president of Mexico is the center of Mexico’s political system, holding most of the power at the federal level of government.

Answer 49

Mexico’s Constitution of 1917 created the state institutions:

1) the president,
2) the Congress
3) the judiciary
4) bureaucracy
5) the military, and
6) states.

The president of Mexico acts as the head of state and the head of government.

The Constitution has identified that the President has the power to

1) appoint the members of the Cabinet and Mexican ambassadors,
2) command the army, navy, and air force.
3) Declare war and peace with prior authorization of Congress,
4) negotiate foreign treaties,
5) issue decrees with the force of law,
6) nominate Supreme Court justices,
7) veto laws passed by Congress, and
8) introduce bills to Congress.

The president of Mexico is the center of Mexico’s political system, holding most of the power at the federal level of government.

Question 50

The Congress of the Union is __________ where both houses exercise power in policy making. During PRI rule, Congress was a mere rubber stamp body that approved all initiatives of the President.

Today, the Congress has developed into a system that places a check on the president’s power. Gridlock is now a normal occurrence within the legislature, making it hard to pass laws and enact reforms.

Answer 50

The Congress of the Union is bicameral, where both houses exercise power in policy making. During PRI rule, Congress was a mere rubber stamp body that approved all initiatives of the President.

Today, the Congress has developed into a system that places a check on the president’s power. Gridlock is now a normal occurrence within the legislature, making it hard to pass laws and enact reforms.

Question 51

Mexico’s judiciary is divided into different levels. The ____________________ is the highest court in Mexico’s judiciary.

This court is made up of _______ justices who are appointed to _________ year terms by the president, with the approval of the ___________. Prior to 1995, lower level judicial appointments were part of the patron-client network of the PRI. Reforms in 1995 created a system based on merit. Justices now needed to take competitive exams to prove their qualifications prior to be nominated.

The Supreme Court of Justice possesses the power of ___________. They’re only able to exercise this power to strike down laws as unconstitutional when given the request to do so, from either ________-________ of Congress, or if requested, by the _____________. The legal system in Mexico is based on code law.

Due to Mexico’s long history of patron-clienteleism and corruption in the courts, many Mexicans still find it difficult to trust the courts.

Answer 51

Mexico’s judiciary is divided into different levels. The Supreme Court of Justice is the highest court in Mexico’s judiciary.

This court is made up of 11 justices who are appointed to 15 year terms by the president, with the approval of the Senate. Prior to 1995, lower level judicial appointments were part of the patron-client network of the PRI. Reforms in 1995 created a system based on merit. Justices now needed to take competitive exams to prove their qualifications prior to be nominated.

The Supreme Court of Justice possesses the power of judicial review. They’re only able to exercise this power to strike down laws as unconstitutional when given the request to do so, from either one-third of Congress, or if requested, by the attorney general. The legal system in Mexico is based on code law.

Due to Mexico’s long history of patron-clienteleism and corruption in the courts, many Mexicans still find it difficult to trust the courts.

Question 52

The bureaucracy in Mexico has more than 1.5 million workers. During PRI rule, the bureaucracy was part of the patron-client network, and filled with corruption.

In 2000, when PAN won the presidency, they attempted to _____________ the bureaucracy by __________ the procedures.

This resulted in _____________, which were codified regulations that established procedures in an effort to prevent incompetence in the bureaucracy. The massive numbers of __________ were frustrating for Mexican citizens, making what should have been a simple procedure, like approval to paint a home, tedious and time consuming. Not only did citizens have to wait in long lines for approval, they often had to pay bribes to get the approvals that they needed.

Even after __________’s presidency, and efforts he made to trim ___________, there are still more than 4,000 _________ in Mexico. It is also estimated that Mexicans are still paying more than $2 billion a year in bribes to bureaucrats.

Answer 52

The bureaucracy in Mexico has more than 1.5 million workers. During PRI rule, the bureaucracy was part of the patron-client network, and filled with corruption.

In 2000, when PAN won the presidency, they attempted to professionalize the bureaucracy by codifying the procedures.

This resulted in tramites, which were codified regulations that established procedures in an effort to prevent incompetence in the bureaucracy. The massive numbers of tramites were frustrating for Mexican citizens, making what should have been a simple procedure, like approval to paint a home, tedious and time consuming. Not only did citizens have to wait in long lines for approval, they often had to pay bribes to get the approvals that they needed.

Even after Calderon’s presidency, and efforts he made to trim tramites, there are still more than 4,000 tramites in Mexico. It is also estimated that Mexicans are still paying more than $2 billion a year in bribes to bureaucrats. Military played a large and influential role in Mexican politics in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Question 53

Military played a large and influential role in Mexican politics in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Starting with Mexico’s independence, and up until 1946, almost every head of state was a __________. The constitution tried to reduce the influence that the military had on politics. Military authorities were prohibited from any functions that were not directly related to the military. And officers had to be out of the military for at least ___________ before taking a political office.

The constitution also established the president to be the _______________ of the military. Today, the military in Mexico is both professional and de-politicized. During the 71 years that the PRI ruled Mexico, it was constitutionally federal, but state governments were nothing more than puppet governments of the PRI. After election reforms, voters were finally able to have a choice in who would run for their state, and states finally had a voice and independence from the federal government.

Answer 53

Military played a large and influential role in Mexican politics in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Starting with Mexico’s independence, and up until 1946, almost every head of state was a general. The constitution tried to reduce the influence that the military had on politics. Military authorities were prohibited from any functions that were not directly related to the military. And officers had to be out of the military for at least six months before taking a political office.

The constitution also established the president to be the supreme commander of the military. Today, the military in Mexico is both professional and de-politicized. During the 71 years that the PRI ruled Mexico, it was constitutionally federal, but state governments were nothing more than puppet governments of the PRI. After election reforms, voters were finally able to have a choice in who would run for their state, and states finally had a voice and independence from the federal government.

Question 54

Mexico has __________ states, each which elects their own ____________ and __________, and each with their own state judicial system. Today, Mexico is not only constitutionally federal, but functionally federal as well.

In this lesson, you learned about the political institutions of Mexico. We discussed Mexican linkage institutions, such as political parties, elections, interest groups, and the media, as well as Mexican state institutions, including the president, the Congress, the judiciary, the bureaucracy, the military, and states.

Answer 54

Mexico has 31 states, each which elects their own governor and Congress, and each with their own state judicial system. Today, Mexico is not only constitutionally federal, but functionally federal as well.

In this lesson, you learned about the political institutions of Mexico. We discussed Mexican linkage institutions, such as political parties, elections, interest groups, and the media, as well as Mexican state institutions, including the president, the Congress, the judiciary, the bureaucracy, the military, and states.

Question 55

As Mexico transitioned from a developing country with an authoritarian political system into a transitional state, public policy concerns in Mexico have shifted as well. In this lesson, we are going to discuss Mexico’s public policy concerns when it comes to the economy, drug violence, corruption, and foreign policy. Following the intervention of the IMF in 1982, economic policies in Mexico have transitioned toward neoliberalism.

Mexico has embraced free trade and globalization, as a way to develop their economy. _______________ districts, where factories are able to import raw materials, duty- and tariff-free, and export around the world without restrictions, have contributed toward the success in Mexico’s economy. These early successes started to slow as the United States began trading with China and other low cost manufacturers.

______________ factories started to decline. The economy in Mexico is seeing growth, but it has only been at a rate of ______% a year since the start of ___________. The gap between rich and poor is widening, and poverty is increasing.

Answer 55

As Mexico transitioned from a developing country with an authoritarian political system into a transitional state, public policy concerns in Mexico have shifted as well. In this lesson, we are going to discuss Mexico’s public policy concerns when it comes to the economy, drug violence, corruption, and foreign policy. Following the intervention of the IMF in 1982, economic policies in Mexico have transitioned toward neoliberalism.

Mexico has embraced free trade and globalization, as a way to develop their economy. Maquiladora districts, where factories are able to import raw materials, duty and tariff free, and export around the world without restrictions, have contributed toward the success in Mexico’s economy. These early successes started to slow as the United States began trading with China and other low cost manufacturers.

Maquiladora factories started to decline. The economy in Mexico is seeing growth, but it has only been at a rate of 1.5% a year since the start of NAFTA. The gap between rich and poor is widening, and poverty is increasing.

Question 56

To deal with the rise in poverty, Mexico implemented a program called ____________.

Under ________________, cash payments are given to mothers in poverty, as long as their children follow nutritional guidelines and attend school regularly. _____________ has been highly successful and many developing countries are imitating this program

Answer 56

To deal with the rise in poverty, Mexico implemented a program called Opportunidades.

Under Opportunidades, cash payments are given to mothers in poverty, as long as their children follow nutritional guidelines and attend school regularly. Opportunidades has been highly successful and many developing countries are imitating this program

Question 57

Another conflict seen in Mexican economic policy is deciding what to do with the large state owned independent business operations called __________.

_____________ were cost-inefficient but protected from foreign competition. In ____________, Mexico removed trade barriers in response to the fiscal crisis. This foreign competition caused ___________ to face huge financial losses and ______-_______ of these firms were sold into the private sector throughout the 1980s and 90s. An example would be ___________.

President ________ unsuccessfully tried to privatize the national oil company due to its inefficient production and operating losses that were constantly being subsidized by the state.

President _______ __________ has made efforts to reform Mexico’s oil market by allowing __________________________ against __________. ________ _____________ is making efforts to change the tax structure in Mexico, which currently depends on taxes from _________ revenue to fund _____-_______ of the annual budget.

The goal is for ________ to survive against foreign companies and for the government to wean themselves from their dependency on ________ revenue.

Answer 57

Another conflict seen in Mexican economic policy is deciding what to do with the large state owned independent business operations called parastatals.

Parastatals were cost inefficient but protected from foreign competition. In 1982, Mexico removed trade barriers in response to the fiscal crisis. This foreign competition caused parastatals to face huge financial losses and two-thirds of these firms were sold into the private sector throughout the 1980s and 90s. An example would be Pemex.

President Fox unsuccessfully tried to privatized the national oil company due to its inefficient production and operating losses that were constantly being subsidized by the state. President Peña Nieto has made efforts to reform Mexico’s oil market by allowing limited foreign competition against Pemex. Peña Nieto is making efforts to change the tax structure in Mexico, which currently depends on taxes from Pemex revenue to fund one-third of the annual budget.

The goal is for Pemex to survive against foreign companies and for the government to wean themselves from their dependency on Pemex revenue.

Question 58

Mexico has seen a wave of drug violence overtaking many cities which has led to a war on drugs. Powerful drug cartels in Mexico compete with each other for distribution networks into the United States.

Conflicts between cartels became more and more violent. Since 2006 at least __________ people have died from this drug-related violence. Cartels would often bribe local officials to ignore their presence in cities. Local officials and reporters that attempted to stop cartel activity or identify cartel members were violently murdered. Mexican Presidents _______ and __________ carried out huge high profile campaigns against the drug cartels using the Mexican _________.

President ___________ has used a similar strategy, but has found more success than his predecessors as the drug violence is beginning to find stabilization and many high profile leaders of cartels have been arrested.

Answer 58

Mexico has seen a wave of drug violence overtaking many cities which has led to a war on drugs. Powerful drug cartels in Mexico compete with each other for distribution networks into the United States.

Conflicts between cartels became more and more violent. Since 2006 at least 80,000 people have died from this drug-related violence. Cartels would often bribe local officials to ignore their presence in cities. Local officials and reporters that attempted to stop cartel activity or identify cartel members were violently murdered. Mexican Presidents Fox and Calderon, carried out huge high profile campaigns against the drug cartels using the Mexican military.

President Peña Nieto has used a similar strategy, but has found more success than his predecessors as the drug violence is beginning to find stabilization and many high profile leaders of cartels have been arrested.

Question 59

Mexico’s current president is _____________.

Often described as a ________-__________ ___________ democrat and economic ______________, ____________________ has been a national politician for more than three decades.[4] Critics have claimed that his administration has stumbled in its response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico and attempts to deal with drug cartels and other crime, and that the economy had already faltered even before the pandemic.[5]

Answer 59

Often described as a center-left progressive democrat and economic nationalist,[3] López Obrador has been a national politician for more than three decades.[4] Critics have claimed that his administration has stumbled in its response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico and attempts to deal with drug cartels and other crime, and that the economy had already faltered even before the pandemic.[5]

Question 60

The final public policy concern in Mexico that we are going to discuss is foreign policy.

Throughout most of Mexico’s history, foreign policy was ___________ with the focus of the state’s attention on their relationship with the United States.

The United States is the recipient of more than ________% of Mexico’s exports, but is only the third largest trading partner of the United States. Discussions of expanding NAFTA were abruptly halted following the terrorist attacks of 9/11 which caused the United States to shift their focus from the economy to counter-terrorism and security.

____________ between the United States and Mexico is another concern between the two countries. While Mexico would like to see the US loosen immigration restrictions, United States has continued to limit immigration, even building a border fence to keep illegal immigrants out. Today, Mexico is working to build more international relationships and has signed free trade agreements with more than 44 countries following __________.

In 1995, Mexico joined the _____________________ and placed itself on the world stage at forums like the United Nations.

Answer 60

The final public policy concern in Mexico that we are going to discuss is foreign policy.

Throughout most of Mexico’s history, foreign policy was bilateral, with the focus of the state’s attention on their relationship with the United States. The United States is the recipient of more than 90% of Mexico’s exports, but is only the third largest trading partner of the United States. Discussions of expanding NAFTA were abruptly halted following the terrorist attacks of 9/11 which caused the United States to shift their focus from the economy to counter-terrorism and security.

Immigration between the United States and Mexico is another concern between the two countries. While Mexico would like to see the US loosen immigration restrictions, United States has continued to limit immigration, even building a border fence to keep illegal immigrants out. Today, Mexico is working to build more international relationships and has signed free trade agreements with more than 44 countries following NAFTA.

In 1995, Mexico joined the World Trade Organization and placed itself on the world stage at forums like the United Nations.

Question 61

Corruption is another major policy concern in Mexico and has been for a long time. When countries were measured using the corruption perceptions index, Mexico was ranked 103 out of 175 countries measured.

A recent act of corruption in Mexico occurred in 2014 when 43 students were kidnapped and burned to death in the town of Iguala. This crime was traced back to the Iguala police who were ordered by the _________________ to commit this heinous crime, believing that these students were going to disrupt an event, where the _____________ was planning on announcing her candidacy as ____________.

Even President _______ ___________ is not free of corruption concerns. He has been in public service his entire career, yet he is worth over ____________. In 2015, Congress passed an anti-corruption law. However, these results of this new law remain to be seen.

Answer 61

Corruption is another major policy concern in Mexico and has been for a long time. When countries were measured using the corruption perceptions index, Mexico was ranked 103 out of 175 countries measured.

A recent act of corruption in Mexico occurred in 2014 when 43 students were kidnapped and burned to death in the town of Iguala. This crime was traced back to the Iguala police who were ordered by the mayor and his wife to commit this heinous crime. Believing that these students were going to disrupt an event, where the mayor’s wife was planning on announcing her candidacy as mayor.

Even President Peña Nieto is not free of corruption concerns. He has been in public service his entire career, yet he is worth over $3 million. In 2015, Congress passed an anti-corruption law. However, these results of this new law remain to be seen.

Question 62

What is the USMCA?

Answer 62

The most influential FTA is the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which came into effect in 2020, and was signed in 2018 by the governments of the United States, Canada and Mexico. In 2006, trade with Mexico’s two northern partners accounted for almost 90% of its exports and 55% of its imports.[25] Recently, the Congress of the Union approved the important tax, pension, and judicial reforms, and reform to the oil industry is currently being debated. Mexico had 16 companies in the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world’s largest companies in 2016.[26]

The Agreement resulted from renegotiations between the NAFTA member states beginning in 2017; characterized as “tumultuous”,[11] these centered primarily on “auto exports, steel and aluminum tariffs, and the dairy, egg, and poultry markets”.[12] All sides came to an informal agreement on September 30, 2018, which was formalized the following day, October 1.[13] U.S. President Donald Trump proposed USMCA during the 2018 G20 Summit, and it was signed by Trump, Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto, and Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau on November 30, 2018. A revised version was signed December 10, 2019 and ratified by all three countries, with Canada being the last to ratify on March 13, 2020, immediately before the Parliament of Canada adjourned due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Following notification by all three governments that the provisions were ready for domestic implementation, the agreement came into effect on July 1, 2020.[14][15][16][17][18]

USMCA largely modernizes the 25-year-old NAFTA’s provisions, namely with respect to intellectual property and digital trade,[19][20] and borrows language from the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), of which Canada and Mexico are signatories. Key changes from its predecessor agreement include increased environmental and working regulations; greater incentives for automobile production in the U.S. (with quotas for Canadian and Mexican automotive production); more access to Canada’s dairy market, and an increased duty-free limit for Canadians who buy U.S. goods online