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Biochemistry 1 > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three ways that cells appear to communicate with other cells?

A

Indirect signlaing by secreted chemicals
Direct signaling by plasma membrane bound molecules
Direct signaling via gap junctions

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2
Q

What are the three classes of mammalian hormones based on?

A

Based on transit of hormone from cell of origin to target site

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3
Q

What are the three classes of mammalian hormones?

A

Paracrine
Endocrine
Autocrine
Neuroendocrine signaling

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4
Q

_______ hormones are released into extracellular space, diffuse to neighboring target cells

A

Paracrine

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5
Q

_______ hormones are released into blood and carried to target cells

A

Endocrine

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6
Q

_________ hormones affect the cell where they’re produced by binding to their own surface receptors

A

Autocrine

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7
Q

Eicosanoids are examples of ________ hormones

Insulin and glucagon are examples of _________ hormones

A

Paracrine

Endocrine

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8
Q

_______ hormones bind to plasma membranes receptors and operates through second messengers

A

Water-soluble

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9
Q

How are Water soluble hormones transported in the blood?

A

Free form

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10
Q

__________ hormones bind to nuclear receptors and operates through gene regulation

A

Lipid-soluble hormones

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11
Q

How are lipid soluble hormones transported in blood?

A

Bound to proteins

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12
Q

_________ receptors are involved in Hormone-receptor interactions that generates second messengers

A

Metabotropic receptors

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13
Q

Hormone receptors signaling via _______

A

Secondary messengers

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14
Q

Receptors present in the plasma membrane that generates second messsengers when bound to a hormone is known as a

A

Metabotropic receptors

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15
Q

What are examples of peptide hormones?

A

Insulin and glucagon

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16
Q

Peptide hormones are synthesized as _______ and act on plasma membrane receptors to generate ______

A

Prohormones; second messenger

***Prohormone examples preproinsulin -> preinsulin -> insulin

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17
Q

Peptides, catecholamines and eicosanoids hormones act by what way?

A

Binding to plasma membrane receptors and generate second messengers

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18
Q

Catecholamines are synthesized from ______. What is an example?

A

Tyrosine; epinephrine

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19
Q

What are eicosanoids synthesized from?

What is an example?

A

Arachidonate; prostaglandins

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20
Q

Steroid is synthesized from ______. And an example is _________

A

Cholesterol; testosterone

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21
Q

Vitamin D is synthesized from _______. And example is _____

A

Cholesterol; calcitriol

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22
Q

Retinoid is synthesized from _______. An example is _______

A

Vitamin A; Retinoate

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23
Q

Thyroid hormones are synthesized from _______. An example is _______

A

Thyroglobulin; Triiodothyronine (T3)

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24
Q

What types of hormones act by way of binding to nuclear receptors and regulate gene expression?

A

Steroid, vitamin D, retinoid, thyroid hormones

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25
Q

Nitric oxide hormones are synthesized from _____ and _____ and act by way of ________ receptor thus generating a second messenger

A

From arginine and O2

Cytosol is receptor

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26
Q

What neurotransmitter is active in the CNS and PNS?

A

Acetylcholine

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27
Q

What us the amino acid precursor of acetylcholine?

A

Serine

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28
Q

What two components combine to form Ach?

A

Choline + Acetyl-CoA

*** Choline is produced by Serine

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29
Q

_________ receptor is an ion channel to where the ligand receptor interactions opens up the ion channel. What is an example of this receptor?

A

Ionotropic

Ex: Ach receptors

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30
Q

Propagation of the impulse involves opening of ________ channels

A

Voltage gated Na+

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31
Q

Opening of _________ channels at the end of the axon triggers the release of the neurotransmitter Ach

A

Voltage gated Ca2+

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32
Q

_______ opens the ligand gated ion channel (ionotropic receptor) on the receiving cell

A

Ach

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33
Q

_______ is synthesized by the beta cells of pancreas during the _____ state (after eating a typical meal)

A

Insulin ; Fed state

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34
Q

What are the target cells of insulin?

A

Liver, muscle, or fat tissue cells

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35
Q

What does the binding of insulin to the insulin receptor initiate?

A

A cascade of event that leads to increased glucose uptake and metabolism

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36
Q

What precursor of insulin has the signal sequence, C-peptide, and the alpha and beta chain?

A

Preproinsulin

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37
Q

What precursor molecule of insulin has the signal sequence removed but C peptide is present?

A

Proinsulin

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38
Q

What is the functional insulin made up of?

A

Alpha and beta chain

** functional once C-peptide is removed from Proinsulin

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39
Q

Insulin is a _______ hormone with 51 amino acids

A

Peptide

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40
Q

Where is insulin made?

A

Beta cells of pancreas

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41
Q

Insulin is high in blood during the _____ state. It’s release is stimulated by what?

A

Fed state; high blood glucose

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42
Q

During the fed state when there is high blood glucose, what organs are affected and result in an increase in uptake of glucose?

A

Muscle
Adipose tissue
Liver

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43
Q

When insulin is present, what biomolecules are synthesized?

A

Glycogen
Fat
Cholesterol
Protein (to lesser extent)

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44
Q

Inability to make or respond to insulin results in _______

A

Diabetes

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45
Q

_______ is synthesized by the alpha cells of the pancreas during ______

A

Glucagon; fasting state

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46
Q

What is the precursor of glucagon?

A

Proglucagon

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47
Q

Glucagon is a ______ hormone made up of 29 amino acids

A

Peptide

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48
Q

When is glucagon increases only when ________ is low

A

Blood glucose

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49
Q

Glucagon is high in blood _______ and _____

A

Between meals and overnight (fasting)

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50
Q

What cels do glucagon effect?

A

Hepatocytes mostly

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51
Q

What does glucagon lead to in hepatocytes?

A

Increase in production and release of glucose

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52
Q

High glucagon leads to _____ in degradation of ______ and ______

A

Increase; Glycogen and fat

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53
Q

Increase of glucagon release results in ________ synthesis of cholesterol, fat and glycogen

A

Decreased

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54
Q

Where is epinephrine synthesized from? What causes it to be secreted?

A

The adrenal glands during stress, like exercise or starvation

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55
Q

______ is the end product of modifying tyrosine by sequential chemical reactions that generate other signaling molecules as well

A

Epinephrine

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56
Q

Complete the pathway of synthesis to epinephrine

Tyrosine-> ________ -> dopamine-> _____ -> epinephrine

A

L-DOPA; Norepineprhine

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57
Q

Epinephrine is a _______ Hormone synthesized by ______

A

Catecholamine; tyrosine

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58
Q

______ is produced by the adrenal glands and secreted during times of stress from starvation or exercise

A

Epinephrine

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59
Q

High epinephrine leads to degradation of _____ and ______. Decrease synthesis of ______, _____ and _____.

A

Increased degradation:
Glycogen, fat

Decreased synthesis of cholesterol, Fat and glycogen

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60
Q

Epinephrine secretion leads to increased O2 to tissues resulting in what 3 things?

A

Increased heart rate
Increased blood pressure
Increased vasodilation

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61
Q

What plays vital roles as signaling molecules between near by cells (paracrine signlaing)

A

Biologically active signaling

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62
Q

What are 3 examples of biologically active lipids

A

Eicosanoids
Steroid hormones
Lipid soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K)

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63
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme TPP?

A

Thiamin

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64
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme FAD/FMN?

A

Riboflavin

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65
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme NAD+/NAP+?

A

Niacin

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66
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme CoA and ACP?

A

Pantothenate

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67
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme Biocytin?

68
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme PLP?

A

Vitamin B-6

69
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme THF?

70
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme methyl and deoxycobalamin?

A

Vitamin B-12

71
Q

What is the vitamin precursor of the coenzyme Collagen hydroxylation?

72
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme TPP important in?

A

Decarboxylation as 2C fragment carrier

73
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme FAD/FMN important in?

A

Redox as an electron carrier

74
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme NAD+/NADP+ important in?

A

Redox as electron carrier

75
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme CoA and ACP important in?

A

Acylation as acyl carrier

76
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme Biocytin important in?

A

Carboxylation

77
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme PLP important in?

A

Amino transfer and decarboxylation

78
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme THF important in?

A

One-C transfer, AA and nucleotide metabolism

79
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme methyl and deoxycobalamin important in?

A

Oxidation of odd chain FA,

Folate metabolism and amino acid metabolism

80
Q

What reaction is the coenzyme collagen hydroxylation important in?

A

Antioxidant

81
Q

What are the fat soluble vitamins?

A

Vitamin A, D, E, and K

82
Q

What fat soluble vitamins s also referred to retinoids?

83
Q

What form of vitamin A is present in plants? In animals?

A

Animals: vitamin A or retinoids
Plants: Pro-vitamin A or carotenoids

84
Q

What are the active forms of Vitamin A?

A

Retinoic acid: cellular differentiation

Retinal: Vision

85
Q

______ are vitamin A containing compounds

86
Q

_______ is the aldehyde form of vitamin A

87
Q

______ is the alcohol form of vitamin A

88
Q

_____ is the acid form of vitamin A

A

Retinoic acid

89
Q

Vitamin A is stored as ________ in the liver and adipose tissue

A

Retinyl esters

90
Q

What is the functionally active form of vitamin A in the retina?

A

11-cis-retinal

91
Q

________ is a Component of the visual pigment rhodopsin

A

11-cis retinal

92
Q

What is the site of synthesis of vitamin D?

93
Q

What is the site of action of vitamin D?

A

Bones, intestine, and kidney

94
Q

What is the vitamin D found in circulation?

A

25-hydroxyvitamin D

95
Q

What is the active Vitamin D?

A

1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitaminD

AKA calcitriol

96
Q

What are the two overall functions of vitamin D?

A

Mineral homeostasis (calcium and phosphorus balance) and gene expression

97
Q

How does vitamin D affect mineral homeostasis?

A

It reduces kidney excretion of calcium

It regulates calcium deposition in bones

Along with parathyroid hormone (PTH) it regulates calcium levels

98
Q

What is the precursor to Vitamin D synthesis?

A

7-dehydrocholesterol

99
Q

7-dehydrocholesterol is converted to vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) in the __________ (location) via _____

A

Skin via UV light

100
Q

Cholecalciferol that is produced in the skin from UV light is sent to the _____ where it will be converted to ________ and sent into circulation

A

Liver; calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D)

101
Q

Once cholecalciferol is converted to 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the liver, it is transported in the blood to the _______ where it will become _______ (active vitamin D)

A

Kidney; 1,25dihydroxyvitamin D AKA calcitriol

102
Q

______ units are important in vitamins E and K and A

A

Isoprene

*** she mentioned vitamin A but it is not mentioned in the chart

103
Q

What is the role of vitamin E?

A

It’s an antioxidant

104
Q

Vitamin E family of compounds is ________

A

Tocopherols

105
Q

What is the most active tocopherol?

A

Alpha-tocopherol

106
Q

_______ protects double bonds in unsaturated fats

107
Q

How does vitamin E protect double bonds in unsaturated fats?

A

Prevents free radical formation by acting as an electron donor

Also functions to remove peroxides during oxidation of polyunsaturated FAs

108
Q

Vitamin K’s role is a ______

109
Q

How does vitamin K act as a cofactor?

A

Vitamin K activates gamma-glutamyl carboxylase

**This reaction is important in blood clotting

110
Q

Vitamin K acts as a cofactor in _______ and ______

A

Blood clotting and bone matrix proteins

111
Q

Where are thyroid hormones synthesized?

A

Thyroid glands

112
Q

_______ residues are enzymatically iodinated in thryroglobulins in the formation of thyroid hormones T3 and T4

113
Q

_________ sundergoes carboxylation through the enzyme gamma-glutamyl carboxylase with its cofactor vitamin K

**important in the clot formation cascade

A

Glutamic acid

114
Q

Condensation of two _____ molecules to form the precursor to thyroxine

A

Iodotyrosine

115
Q

Release of _____ by proteolysis of the precursor

116
Q

Underproduction of thyroxine slows metabolism which results in ________

117
Q

Nitric oxide is a ______ hormone

118
Q

________ is an important cofactor in the clotting cascade that is important in converting the precursors of clotting factors to mature clotting factors

119
Q

Nitric oxide synthase catalyzes synthesis of ______ from ______

A

NO from arginine

120
Q

Nitric Oxide (NO) generates _____, a second messenger

121
Q

What are the 3 actions of NO (nitric oxide)?

A

Regulation of neurotransmission
Stimulating defense to microbial infection
Vasodilation

122
Q

NO acts by stimulating _________ to convert GTP-> cGMP

A

Guanylate cyclase

123
Q

__________ protein kinase mediates the effects of NO via phosphorylation of key proteins

A

cGMP-dependent protein kinase

124
Q

Action of cGMP is terminated by ____________ which converts cGMP to GMP

A

cGMP phosphodiesterase

125
Q

What are the two thyroid hormones?

A

Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3)

126
Q

What is the circulating form of thyroid hormones?

A

Thyroxine (T4)

127
Q

Which of the thyroid hormones is the functionally active form?

A

Triiodothyronine (T3)

128
Q

cGMP-dependent protein kinase mediates the effects of NO on what 3 components?

A

Phosphorylation of contractile proteins in smooth muscle
Surrounding blood vessel relaxes the muscle
Lowers blood pressure (vasodilation)

129
Q

What are the pyrimidine bases?

A

Cytosine
Thymine
Uracil

130
Q

What are the purine bases?

A

Adenine and guanosine

Pneumonic: Pure As Gold (Purine Adenine Guanine)

131
Q

______ are derivative so pyrimidine or purine

A

Nucleobases

132
Q

_______ are nitrogen containing heteroaromatic molecules

A

Nucleobases

133
Q

What are the 3 functions of nucleotides?

A 
Energy metabolism (ATP)
Enzyme cofactors (NAD+)
Signal transduction (cAMP)
134
Q

What are the 4 functions of nucleic acids?

A

Storage of genetic info (DNA)
Transmitting of genetic info (mRNA)
Processing of genetic info (ribozymes)
Protein synthesis (tRNA and rRNA)

135
Q

_______ and ______ are good H bond donors and acceptors

A

Pyrimidines and purines

136
Q

What are the bases of the nucleotides that are used as an energy source

A

Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil

137
Q

dATP, dAMP, dADP are all examples that pertain to _____

ATP, AMP, and ADP are all examples that pertain to ___

138
Q

What are 3 examples of nucleotides that function as coenzymes?

A

Coenzyme A
NAD+
FAD

ADP is a common motif

139
Q

What is the common motif seen in coenzymes?

140
Q

_______ and ______ act as second messengers and mediate regulation via cAMP or cGMP dependent phosphorylation of PKA

A

cAMP and cGMP

141
Q

______ and ______ function as regulatory molecules and act as second messengers

A

cAMP and cGMP

142
Q

In polynucleotides, covalent bonds are formed via _______linkages

A

Phosphodiester

143
Q

The backbone of DNA and RNA is _______ charged

A

Negatively

144
Q

______ backbone is fairly stable

______ backbone is unstable

145
Q

Polynucleotides are _____ polymers that have no branching or cross-links

146
Q

Polynucleotides have ______ where the 5’ end is different from 3’ end

A

Directionality

147
Q

The sequence of DNA and RNA is read from the ___ end to the ____ end

A

5’ end to the 3’ end

148
Q

Two bases can hydrogen bond to from a _______

149
Q

For ______, large number of base pairs is possible

For _______, only a few possibilities exist

A

Monomers

Polynucleotides

150
Q

Watson and crick base pairs predominate in double stranded DNA
A pairs with _____
C pairs with ____
________ pairs with ______

A

A-T; C-G; Pyrimidines pair with purines

151
Q

Replication of DNA is _______

A

Semiconservative

152
Q

In _______ model of DNA replication, each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new strand

A

Semiconservative

153
Q

Synthesis of DNA is catalyzed by enzymes known as __________

A

DNA polymerases

154
Q

Newly made DNA has one ______ strand and one ______ strand

A

One daughter strand, and one parent strand

155
Q

______ is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA and occurs in the nucleus

A

Transcription

156
Q

______ is the synthesis of proteins under the direction of RNA and occurs in the cytosol and RER

A

Translation

157
Q

What is translation mediated by?

158
Q

What RNA polymerase synthesizes pre-ribosomal RNA

159
Q

What RNA polymerase is responsible for the synthesis of mRNA?

A

RNA pol II

160
Q

What RNA polymerase makes tRNAs and some small RNA

A

RNA pol III

161
Q

Plants appear to have RNA Polymerase _______ that is responsible for the synthesis of small inferring RNAs

A

RNA pol IV

162
Q

T/F? Mitochondria have their own RNA polymerase

163
Q

Eukaryotic mRNA has ______, interrupting sequences that separate ______, the coding regions

A

Introns

Exons

164
Q

The flow of information from gene to protein is based on a _________

A

Triplet code

165
Q

_________ determines its biological function

A

Protein sequence

Biochemistry 1 (4 decks)

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