Unit 3 Flashcards
What is the difference between an aldose and a ketose?
An aldose contains an aldehyde functionality
A Ketose contains a ketone functionality
What is the formula for Carbohydrates?
Cn(H2O)n
What are 3 functions that carbohydrates fulfill?
Energy source and energy storage
Structural component of cell walls and exoskeletons
Informational molecules in cell-cell signaling
Carbohydrates can be _________ linked with proteins to form glycoproteins and proteoglycans
Covalently
_____ have the same chemical formula but different structures
Isomers
________ are stereoisomers that are not mirror images and have different physical properties
Diastereomers
______ are two sugars that differ only in the configuration around one carbon atom
Epimers
Mannose is an ______ of glucose at carbon ____
Epimer; Carbon 2
galactose is an _______ at Carbon ______
Epimer; Carbon 4
______ is the standard five carbon sugar
_______ is the standard 6 carbon sugar
Ribose
Glucose
Fructose is a _______ form of glucose
Ketose
Galactose is an ______ of glucose
Mannose is an ______ of glucose
Epimer
7 examples of aldose \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C3- molecule) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C4) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(C5) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C5) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(C6) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(C6) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(C6)
Glyceraldehyde (C3) Erythrose (C4) Ribose (C5) Deoxyribose (C5) Glucose (C6) Galactose (C6) Mannose (C6)
What are the examples of ketoses \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C3) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C5) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C5) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C6) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (C7)
Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) (C3) Ribulose (C5) Xylulose (C5) Fructose (C6) Sedoheptulose (C7)
Aldehyde and ketone carbons are ________
Electrophilic
Alcohol oxygen atom is ________
Nucleophilic
When aldehydes are attacked by alcohols, _______ form
Hemiacetals
When ketones are attacked by alcohols, ______ form
Hemiketals
Cyclization of sugar forms _______
Anomers
Aldosugar anomers differ at Carbon ______ while ketoanomers differ at Carbon _______
One; Two
What are six members oxygen-containing rings called?
Pyranoses
What are five membered oxygen containing rings called?
Furanoses
What carbon is involved in cyclization of glucose?
Carbon 2
What test allows detection of reducing sugars such as glucose?
The Fehlings test
And the tollens test
Are there carriers for sugar phosphates in plasma membrane of cells?
NO
_______ makes sugars anionic
Phosphorylation
What are key intermediates in energy generation and biosynthesis?
Phosphorylated sugars
Two sugar molecules can be joined via a ________ bond
Glycosidic bond
A glycosidic bond forms between an _______ carbon and a _______ carbon
Anomeric carbon and a hydroxyl carbon
The glycosidic bond between monomers is _____ reactive than the hemiacetal at the second monomer
Less reactive
The condensation of two glucose molecules occurs between carbon _____ and carbon _____ and forms a disaccharide called ________
Carbon 1 and 4
Maltose
What are the nonreducing disaccharides?
Lactose
Sucrose
Trehalose
What is an example of a reducing disaccharide?
Maltose
There are no ______ _____ in a nonreducing sugar
No reducing ends
Two sugar molecules joined via a glycosidic bond between two anomeric carbons results in ______
nonreducing disaccharides
The anomeric carbon involved in the glycosidic linkage is _______
Nonreducing
What are examples of how polysaccharides can be found?
Homopolysaccharides, heteropolysaccharides
Linear
Branched
______ is a branched homopolysaccharide of glucose
Glycogen
What is the linkage formed between glucose monomers in a glycogen chain?
Alpha 1,4 linkages
At the branch points in glycogen, what are the linkages?
Alpha-1,6
Branch points form every ____ to _____ residues with an alpha1,6 linkage.
8-12
______ functions as the main storage polysaccharide in animals
Glycogen
______ is a mixture of two homopolysaccharides of glucose
Starch
_____ is an unbranched polymer of alpha 1,4 linkages of starch
Amylose
________ is branched like glycogen by the branch points with alpha 1,6 occur every 24-30 residues
Amylopectin
______ is the main storage polysaccharide in plants
Starch
What are the 5 effects of branching in polysaccharides?
Increase solubility
Can be more rapidly synthesized
Can be more rapidly degraded
Can potentially elevate blood glucose more rapidly
Have better gelling properties (cooking and food properties)
________ linkages in starch and glycogen produces a hollow helix suitable to the formation of a compact, accessible store of glucose
Alpha 1,4 linkages
What are the monomers of lactose?
Glucose and galactose
What are the monomers of sucrose?
Glucose and fructose
Glycogen and starch often form _____ in cells
Granules
The granules in glycogen and starch contain what?
Enzymes that synthesize and degrade these polymers
Glycogen and amylopectin have ____ reducing end(s) but _______ nonreducing end(s)
One; many
_______ is a homopolysaccharide of glucose
Cellulose
In cellulose glucose monomers form ______ linked chains
Beta 1,4
In cellulose, _____ bonds form between adjacent monomers
H bonds
_____ is most abundant polysaccharide in nature
Cellulose
_______ is a linear homopolysaccharide of N-acetylglucosamine
Chitin
What are the monomers that form a beta 1,4 linkage in chitin?
N-acetylglucosamine
The N-acetylglucosmaine monomers form ______ linked chains
Beta 1,4
______ forms extended fibers that are similar to those of cellulose
Chitin
Where is chitin found?
In cell walks in mushrooms, and in exoskeletons of insects, spiders, crabs and other Arthropods
_______ is a complex mixture of heteropolysaccharides containing modified galactose units.
Agar
_____ solutions form gels that are commonly used in the lab for separation DNA by electrophoresis
Agarose
______ and ______ prevent blood clotting by activating protease inhibitor antithrombin
Heparin and Heparan Sulfate
What regulates development and formaiton of blood vessels when binding to various cells?
Heparin and Heparan sulfate
Carbohydrates can be linked to proteins to form a ___________
Glycoprotein
What are the 3 main classes of glycoproteins?
Glycoproteins
Proteoglycans
Mucins or mucoproteins
__________, A protein with small oligosaccharides attached
Glycoprotein
_______ play a role in protein-protein recognition
Carbohydrates
In glycoproteins, carbohydrate is attaches via its ______ carbon
Anomeric
Erythropoietin is a _________ hormone in the blood serum that has dramatically improved treatment for anemia.
Glycoprotein hormone
In proteoglycans, the protein is attached to a particular type of polysaccharide called _________
Glycosaminoglycan (GAG)
What are the functions of proteoglycans?
Function as lubricants and structural components in CT
They also mediate the adhesion of cells to the extracellular matrix and bind factors that stimulate cell proliferation
________ are linear polymers of repeating disaccharide units
Glycosaminoglycans
One monomer is acetylated amino sugar ______________ or____________
N acetyl-glucosamine
Or
N- acetyl-galactosamine
Other monomer is a negatively charged/ acidic sugar ________ or _______
Ironic acids (C6 oxidation) or sulfate esters
__________ are extended hydrated molecules that minimize charge repulsion
Glycosaminoglycans
_________ forms meshwork with fibrous proteins to form extracellular matrix
Glycosaminoglycans
Describe the relaxed state of glycosaminoglycans
Negative charged residues in GAGS repel each other and are surrounded by a shell of water
___________ chains have slippery consistency
Heteropolysaccharide
Describe the compressed state of glycosaminoglycans
Removal of water
GAGs become smaller
________ and ______ form huge noncovalent proteoglycan aggregates
Hyaluronan and aggrecan
________ _______ hold lots of water and provides lubrication
Proteoglycan aggregates
________ covers joint surfaces like articular cartilage and results in reduced friction and load balancing
Proteoglycan aggregates
What are the key components of collagen?
Aggrecan and collagen protein
_______ provides structure and tensile strength (some hydration) where as ______ serves as a shock absorber by being highly hydrated
Collagen; aggrecan
________ can cushion comprehensive forces because the absorbed water enables it to spring back after being deformed
Aggrecan
What results from the proteolytic degradation of aggrecan and collagen in the cartilage?
Osteoarthritis
What are the main components of the extracellular matrix?
Proteoglycan aggregates
Collagen fibers
Elastic
ECM in cartilage imparts ________ and _________ properties
Biomechanical and hydraulic
________ acts as a barrier to invasive tumor cells and pathogens
Exctracellular matrix
What is the material outside the cell that is the strength, elasticity and physical barrier in tissues?
ECM
__________, integral membrane proteins are proteoglycans
Syndecans
_______, integral membrane proteins are receptors for extracellular proteoglycans
Integrins
_________ and ________ link cytoskeleton to the ECM and transmit signals into the cell to regulate cell growth, mobility, apoptosis, wound healing.
Syndecans and Integrins
What are the two types of oligosaccharides linkages in glycoproteins?
O-linkage and N-linkage
What are the two amino acids involved in the O-linkage that is important in ABO blood group determinants
Serine or threonine
What amino acid is involved in N- linkages of oligosaccharide linkages in glycoproteins?
Asparagine
Oligosaccharides are important in _______
Recognition
In mucins, the protein component is extensively glycoyslated to ______ or _____ residues by N-acetylgalactosamine
Serine or threonine
Mucins can form large polymeric structures and are common in mucus secretions such as ________
Saliva
_________ adhere to epithelial cells and act as a protective barrier; also hydrate the underlining cells
Mucins
Mucins are over expressed in ______ and _______ and ___________
Bronchitis
Cystic fibrosis
Adenocarcinomas
Alpha amylase:
Where is it produced?
Substrate
Linkage
Produced in saliva and pancreas
Substrate: starch
Linkage: alpha 1,4
Maltose is active in the ________ and produces _______ with an _______ linkage
Small intestine; 2 glucoses, alpha 1,4
Invertase acts on _______ to produce glucose and fructose with an ________ linkage
Sucrose; (alpha 1,2 linkage)
Lactase or Beta-galactosidase acts on ______ to produce glucose and galactose with a ________ linkage
Lactose; beta 1,4
_________ important in dietary glucose and galactose absorption
Na-glucose symporter (SGS) or transporter (SGT)
_______ important in dietary fructose absorption and release
GLUT5
________ is important in dietary glucose and galactose RELEASE
GLUT2
________ are organic molecules that are characterized by low solubility in water and are relatively hydrophobic
Lipids
Glucose, fructose, galactose and mannose are ______ and have the same molecular formula of _____
Isomers; C6H12O6
When sugars are reduced what does the aldehyde group result in?
Carboxylic acid group.
Aldehyde is oxidized to carboxylic acid
What are examples of glycosaminoglycans?
Chondroitin 6-sulfate Keratin sulfate Heparin Dermatan sulfate Hyaluronate
What is the core protein in proteoglycan aggregates what is important in preventing osteoarthritis?
Aggrecan
What are the biological functions of lipids?
Storage of energy Insulation from environment Water repellent Membrane structure Cofactors for enzymes Signaling molecules Pigments Antioxidants
________ are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon chains containing between 4 to 36 carbons
Fatty acids
Almost all natural FA have an _____ number of carbons and are __________
Even; unbranched
_____ FA has no double bonds between carbons in the chain
Saturated
_______ FA have one double bond between carbons in the alkyl chain
Monounsaturated
Short chain FA: ___-_____ Carbons
Medium chain FA ___-____ carbons
Long chain FA:___-____ carbons
Very long chain FA: greater than ___ carbons
Short chain 2-4 Carbons
Medium chain: 6-12 carbons
Long chain FA: 14-20
Very long chain FA: greater than 22 C
When reading the nomenclature how can you tell the number carbons and double bonds in linoleic acid 18:2 (9,12)?
18= number of carbons
:2 talks about the number of bonds
(9,12) locations of the double bonds
The first carbon is the _______ carbon, the next one is the ______ carbon and the last one is called the _____ carbon that is a part of of the methyl Carbon
Carboxyl; alpha; omega
What are the essential fatty acids?
Linoleate (C18:2)
Linolenate (C18:3)
What are the precursors of eicosanoids?
Essential Fatty acids
(Linoleate and linolenate
________ is an omega 3 FA that is known as cardioprotective
Alpha-linolenate
What is the essential FA that is classified as an omega 6 FA and is a precursor to arachidonic acid?
Linoleic acid
________ chain of FA tends to adopt extended conformations
Saturated
The double bonds in natural unsaturated FA are commonly in _____ conformation, which kinks the chain
Cis
__________ ____ FA have a lower melting point
Unsaturated cis FA
Long chain FA contain at least _____ carbons.
12 carbons
________ FA are most common in cells
Long chain FA
_______ FA are sold at room temp and a melting point at _______
Saturated; 70 degrees C
_______ long chain FA are liquid at room temperature and have a melting point at ______
Unsaturated
13 degrees Celsius
_______ melting points are even lower
PolyUnsaturated LC FA
The ________ are polyunsaturated
Essential FA
How do trans fatty acids form?
By partial hydrogenation of polyunsaturated FA
A _____ double bond allows a given FA to adopt an extended conformation
Trans
Trans FA can pack more regularly and show _____ melting points than cis forms
Higher
Consuming ______ fats increases the risk of cardiovascular disease
Trans
Free fatty acids: _______ FA
Unesterified
What are the storage lipids?
TAGs (triacylglycerols)
Membrane lipid examples (2):
Phospholipids
Glycolipids
Phospholipids:
- glycerophospholipids (GPL): ________ backbone
- sphingolipid (SPL): _________ backbone
Glycerol backbone
Sphingosine backbone
What are examples of glycolipids (sugar containing lipids)
Cerebroside
Globosides
Gangliosides
What are examples of Cerebroside?
Lipid containing glucose or galactose
What are examples of Globosides?
Lipids containing Di, Tri-tetrasaccharide
What are gangliosides?
Lipids with seven sugar residues (oligosaccharides)
What are the components of steroids
Steroid nucleus or the tetracycline ring
Cholesterol: a steroid with ______ functional group
Alcohol
With a tetracyclic ring
In biological systems, what is the form the majority of FA found in?
TAGs
What is the primary storage form of lipids?
Body fat
Why are TAGs less soluble in water than FA?
Due to the lack of charged carboxylate group
What are the advantages of fats over polysaccharides?
FA carry more energy per carbon
FA carry less water per gram
Fatty acids carry more energy per carbon why?
Because they are more reduced
FA carry less water per gram why?
Because they are nonpolar
______ and ______ are for short term energy needs, quick delivery
Glucose and glycogen
_____ are for long term energy needs, good storage, slow delivery
Fats
How are fats stored?
In adipose tissue
What are the primary constituents of cell membranes?
Glycerophospholipids
Two FA form _______ linkages with the first and second hydroxyl groups of L-glycerol-3-phosphate
Glycerophospholipids
The head group of ________ is charged at physiological pH
Glycerophospholipids
What are the Components of the glycerophospholipids?
2 FA
Glycerol
Phosphate and an alcohol
What are commonly found connected to C2 in glycerophospholipids?
Unsaturated FA
The highly polar phosphate group may be further esterified by an _____; such substituents are called the _______ groups
Alcohol; head groups
What are the common alcohols found in GPLs?
Serine, ethanolamine, choline, glycerol, inositol
What common membrane GPL is common for signal of apoptosis?
Phosphatidylserine
What common membrane GPL is important in lung surfactant to prevent alveolar collapse?
Phosphatidylcholine
What common membrane GPL is a substrate for post-translational modification and mitochondrial biogenesis, autophagy?
Phosphatidylethanolamine
What common membrane GPL is important in cell signaling, membrane transport and regulation,etc.
Phosphatidylinositol
What common membrane protein is the predominant lipid of the inner membrane of the mitochondria which houses the ETC complexes?
Cardiolipin
________ lipids: platelets-activating factor
Ether lipids
Ether lipids are the aliphatic ether analog of ________
Phosphatidylcholine
In platelet activating factor, acetic acid has _______ position on C2
Esterified
What stimulates aggregation of blood platelets and plays role in mediation of inflammation?
Ether lipids (Platelet-activating factor)
What is present in the heart brain and bone that may have a role in protecting against oxidative stress, membrane phase modulation and signal transduction?
Plasmalogens
What is the regulator of calcification during skeletogenesis?
Plasmalogens
What are reservoirs of precursors of biologically active lipid mediators (AA and DHA)
Plasmalogens
What is the backbone of sphingolipids?
Sphingosine
In sphingolipids, a FA is joined to a sphingosine via an ______ linkage rather than an _____ linkage that is usually seen in lipids
Amide linkage; ester linkage
A polar head group is connected to sphingosine by a _____ or ______ linkage
Glycosidic or phosphodiester linkage
Sphingomyelin has what two components attached to the alcohol?
Ceramide and phosphocholine
What makes up a ceramide?
Sphingosine + amide-linked FA
________ is abundant in myelin sheath that surrounds some nerve cells in animals
Sphingomyelin
The blood groups are determined in part by the type of ___________ located on the head groups in glycosphingolipids
Sugars
What is the structure of sugars determined by?
An expression of specific glycosyltransferases
Individuals with ______ glycosyltransferase will have O Ag
Individuals with a glycosyltransferase that transfers an _________ have A blood group
Individuals with a glycosyltransferase that transfers a _______ group have B blood group
No active
N-acetylgalactosamine
Galactose
___________ determine blood groups
Glycosphingolipids
With a deficiency in beta-galactosidase there will be a build up of ______
Ceramide
What disease results from a deficiency of glucocerebroside because of the build up of ceramide?
Gaucher’s disease
What is the cause of Niemann-Pick disease?
Sphingomyelinase doesnt break down Sphingomyelin into ceramide and phosphocholine
What enzyme deficiency causes Tay sach’s disease?
Hexoaminidase A
What is the lysosomal enzyme responsible for recycling the GM2 ganglioside?
Beta hexosaminidase
Tay Sachs disease is because of a deficiencies in _______ gene
HEXA
What is the structure of cholesterol?
4 steroid rings and a presence of alcohol group at C3
What is an important consituent of biological membranes, maintains membrane fluidity and rigidity?
Cholesterol
What is the precursor of vitamin D, steroid hormones and bile salts?
Cholesterol
TAG are digested by _____ lipase
Pancreatic lipase
What are all of the zymogens that play a role in the dietary lipid digestion, all these zymogens activated by?
Trypsin
________ emulsify the lipids before and after digestion
Bile salts
Bile salts are produced in ______ and stored and secreted by _____ gallbladder
Glycocholate
What is the substrate for pancreatic lipase?
TAGs
What is the substrate for phospholipase A2?
Phospholipids
Cholesterol ester hydrolase’s substrate is ________
Cholesterol esters
Chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL and HDLs are all examples of ________
Plasma lipoproteins
What plasma lipoprotein consists mainly of TAGs
Chylomicron
What plasma lipoprotein contains mostly cholesterol?
LDL
What plasma lipoprotein is important in endogenous fat transport?
VLDL
What plasma lipoprotein is important in reverse cholesterol transport?
HDL
What plasma lipoprotein is important in dietary fat transport?
Chylomicron
__________ ______ lipids play vital roles as signaling molecules between nearby cells
Biologically active
What are the biologically active lipids?
Eicosanoids
Steroid hormones
Eicosanoid hormones are _____ synthesized in advance
Not
Eicosanoid hormone are generated from ______ via _____
Arachidonic acid via phospholipase A2
Prostglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes are examples of ______
Eicosanoids
__________ are mediators of inflammation, fever, allergic response, smooth muscle contraction, platelet aggregation
Eicosanoid hormones
Secreted PLA2 is produced by ______; involved in digestion of _______ by pancreas and are increased in inflammatory disease meaning they are __________
All tissues; dietary lipids, proinflammatory
Cytosol is PLA2 is ________, similar to mechanism of secreted PLA2
Intracellular
____________ PLA2 hydrolyzes phospholipids in LDL; associated with cardiac disease and artherosclerosis
Lipoprotein-associated PLA2
_________ are eicosanoids that mediate inflammation that consists of a 5 member ring
Prostaglandins
_______ are 6 membered rings eicosanoids that stimualte the aggregation of platelets; stimulate clotting
Thromboxanes
_________ are linear eicosanoids that mediate allergic reactions and smooth muscle contraction in lungs
Leukotrienes
What are examples of omega 3 FA that are used in specialized pro-resolving mediators that target pain and inflammation
DHA and EPA
SPM’s that target pain and inflammation include _______, ______ and _____
Resolvins, protectins and maresins
________ stimulate wound healing and tissue regeneration and counter regulate inflammation process
Specialized pro-resolving mediators
Resolvins, protectins, and maresins
Steroid hormones are made from _______
Cholesterol
What are examples of steroid hormones that are made from cholesterol?
Cortisol, testosterone, estradiol
What Vitamin D is seen in circulation?
25-hydroxyvitamin D
What is the name of ACTIVE vitamin D?
1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D
Where is vitamin D synthesized?
The skin
What is the site of action and function of vitamin D?
Site of action: bone, intestine, kidney
Function: mineral homeostasis
What are some examples of isoprene derived bioactive molecules?
Vitamin E and K
Warfarin
Ubiquinone
Dolichol
