Unit 4 Flashcards
Open System (circulatory)
blood kept in hemolymph, not vessels
Ostia
suck hemolymph inside and draw it forward when the heart is relaxed; openings in the heart or aorta of some animals that allow blood or hemolymph to enter or exit the circulatory system
Closed System (circulatory)
blood is kept in vessels, heart pressurizes the entire system
Vascular Circulatory System
network of blood vessels and the heart that deliver oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to the body’s cells and organs
Vasculature
the blood vessels or arrangement of blood vessels in an organ or part
Arteries
carry blood away from the heart, high pressure with very thick walls
Coronary arteries
bring oxygen away from the heart
Coronary veins
bring oxygen toward the heart
Arterioles
smaller arteries with less thick walls, control blood pressure and blood flow; there are muscles inside that contract and make smaller or lengthen and make larger
Capillaries
smallest blood vessel in the body; when blood goes through it tends to sap all the pressure; gas exchange occurs between capillary and tissue
Venules
small veins, much less muscle, bring veins toward the heart
Endothelium
epithelium that lines blood vessels
Vasoconstriction
squeeze and raise pressure, this occurs anytime a blood vessel is getting smaller in diameter; this is happening when you are getting pale
Vasodilation
heat is getting dumped out (face is red), widening of blood vessels which increases blood flow and lowers blood pressure
Atria
muscle chamber and pump of the heart, pumps blood to the ventricles
Ventricle
muscle chamber of the heart, generates pressure
Systole
contraction phase, more pressure during this phase
Diastole
relaxation phase
Lub
AV valves closing (ventricular systole)
Dup
Semi-lunar valves closing (ventricular diastole)
Cardiac Conduction
electrical flow through the heart
Intercalated discs
connect cardiac muscles
Desmosomes
[cardiac] intermembrane proteins that can grasp each other; hold cells together and contain cadherins
Cadherins
proteins that help cells stick together
Gap junctions
cell to cell communication
Electrical synapses
synapses that hold each other together
Rhythmic depolarization
Every cell in animal cardiac tissue will depolarize on its own - leakiness of sodium comes in
If you let them sit, they will eventually start to depolarize and hit the threshold when they go through the action potential
All cardiac cells sodium (keeps going up until they hit the threshold until they contract) - this is without the electrical signal
Sinoatrial node
“pacemaker” of the heart; little patch of specialized muscle cells that don’t have a lot of ability to contract but depolarize faster than all other muscle cells in the heart
Fibrous connective tissue
depolarization cannot go through this barrier; only place where the signal can pass is the conducting system
Conducting system
a network of specialized cells and electrical signals that coordinates the hearts rhythmic beating (consists of the AV node, SA node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers)
Atrioventricular node
AV node; holds onto the signal and delays it so the atria has time to finish contracting, signal is then passed to the AV bundle (bundle of His)
Bundle of His
AV bundle; modified muscle fibers that run into the interventricular septum
Interventricular Septum
wall that divides the left and right ventricle
Right and left bundle branch
two groups of fibers that carry electrical signals through the heart’s ventricles
Purkinje fibers
go down towards the apex of the heart and depolarize the cells at the bottom, ventricles will then contract bottom to top pushing blood up
EKG/ECG
electrocardiogram; detects voltage changes
P wave
the change in voltage when atria depolarize
QRS
depolarization of the ventricles
T
repolarization of the ventricles
Digestive system
responsible for nutrient processing
Four steps of digestive system
Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination
Ingestion
food or drink is taken in
Digestion
food is broken down into smaller molecules
Absorption
taking things into a cell; the process by which digested food molecules pass through the small intestine and into the bloodstream
Elimination
the final stage where undigested food particles and waste products are expelled from the body through the anus
ATP synthesis and biosynthesis
building blocks of carbon-based things to be able to make muscle cells or actin filaments
Digestive tract
gut; things flow in one direction so they can go through processes
Foregut
mouth, esophagus, stomach
Crop
birds and earthworms have this; extension in the esophagus that holds food until it is ready to be digested
Gizzards
birds and earthworms have this; mills that help grind up the food
Midgut
most important part, holds the small intestine where majority of absorption and digestion take place
Hindgut
large intestine (colon), cecum, anus
Cecum
beginning of the large intestine; absorbs remaining fluids and salts
Mouth
buccal cavity; where jaw and teeth are, teeth are used for mechanical breakdown
Salivary glands
make saliva (which lubricates food)
Salivary amylase
breaks down starch into simple sugars (glucose)
Tongue
important for food manipulation and swallowing, has taste buds (in humans), also important for vocalization
Pharynx
where respiratory and digestive system overlap, connects tube to stomach
Two openings at the base of the pharynx
Glottis and esophagus
Glottis
middle region inside the larynx; has cartilaginous rings and stays open all the time; contains the voice box
Epiglottis
helps keep food from getting into the glottis
Esophagus
has no cartilaginous rings, connects pharynx to stomach, if nothing is in it it is squished down flat
Peristalsis
once you start swallowing, there is a wave of contractions; bolus of food is squeezed down
Cardiac and pyloric sphincters
helps with mechanical breakdown
Stomach
important function is storage
Cardiac muscle (stomach)
close to heart but is not involved in circulatory system, when it doesn’t close and acid comes up this is heartburn
Protein digestion
Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin (protease)
Gastrin
as food stretches the stomach, this hormone (chemical signal) is released
Small intestine
where majority of absorption takes place
Three main sections
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Duodenum
where most chemical digestion takes place, breaks molecules into smaller pieces
Pancreas
makes a lot of zymogens (inactive digestive enzymes and bicarbonate - these bind to carbon atoms and neutralize them
Proteases, lipases, and nucleases
can all be activated when they are in the duodenum
Liver
makes bile which helps break down fats and remove waste, filters all of the blood in the body
Gallbladder
stores much of the bile made by the liver
Bile salts
are within bile and are emulsifiers (break up lipids)
Secretin
hormone released by the duodenum, first hormone ever discovered
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
chole = bile, cysto = bag/purse, kine = movement; when released it causes the gallbladder to dump bile into the duodenum
Jejunum
ABSORBS most of the nutrients from digested food including carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals into the bloodstream
Ileum
ABSORBS and transport molecules to the rest of the organism
Circular folds
villi add surface area, microvilli also add surface area
Tight junctions
holds cells with microvilli together
Large intestine
colon; major function is water absorption; holds the cecum, appendix and rectum
Rectum
temporarily stores fecal matter (stool) received from the colon, allowing for the body to sense the urge when it becomes full
Renal System
kidneys; regulates ion balance, osmotic balance (osmoregulation; regulates the concentration of water and solutes), blood pressure and volume, pH of fluids, excretion of nitrogenous wastes
Nitrogenous wastes
could be caused by nucleic acids
NH3
ammonia
Urea
made by all mammals and some amphibians
Uric acid
made by insects, reptiles and birds
Osmoregulation
how animal cells control how much water they have in their cells
Desiccation
the danger of drying out/not having enough water
Open circulatory system
protonephridia - excretory tubes that help regulate water balance and remove waste from primitive invertebrates
Nephro
kidney
Tubules
flame bulbs; under a microscope they look like thye are flickering but this is actually cilia sucking water in, they have filtration slits
Nephridiopores
wastes get excreted by being pumped out of these
Closed circulatory system
metanophridia - an excretory organ found in vertebrates
Nephrostome
???
Malpighian tubules
primary excretory organ found in insects and some arthropods
Renal vein
large blood vessel that drains blood from the kidney to the ureter into the inferior vena cava
Ureters
drain to urinary bladder
Urinary bladder
hollow muscular organ that stores urine until it is ready to leave the body
Urethra
hollow tube that lets urine (liquid waste) leave the body
Renal cortex
outer layer of the kidney
Renal medulla
smooth inside of the kidney; filters and removes waste from the kidney
Renal pelvis
big parts of the kidney; collects urine and from the kidneys and funnel into the ureters which then carry urine to the bladder
Nephron
functional unit of the vertebral kidney
Podocytes
specialized cells in the kidney that play a critical role in maintaining the glomerular filtration barrier
Interstitial fluid
bodily fluid that surrounds cells and tissues and is found in the spaces between blood vessels and cells
Aquaporins
water channels that have lots of collecting ducts
Pathogen
bacteria, fungi, parasites; disease-causing
Innate immune system
natural protection that is always in place
Mucous membranes
eyes and inside of nose cannot be protected by integument but are protected by mucous
Secretion
mucous made in the mucous membrane, tears from the eyes
Enzymes
can be found inside of secretions
Lysozyme
1st enzyme ever found
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs)
main way frogs defend themselves; tiny proteins that are attracted to the cell wall of bacteria, they make a hole so the bacteria die; everything makes these proteins (skin, gut, etc.)
Phagocytic cells
cells that engulf
Inflammatory cells
cells that target specific invaders so that if you get an attack from the same invader, the response is more robust
Leukocytes
White blood cells
Neutrophils
phagocytic cell; easy to pick out by their strange nuclei, attracted to damaged or infected cells, only live a couple of days, eat viruses and then die
Macrophages
phagocytic cell, larger than neutrophils and longer-lived, many found in lymphnodes and the spleen
Toll-like receptors
used to recognize a foreign cell and engulf it; both neutrophils and macrophages have them
Mast cells
full of vesicles containing histamines
Histamines
chemical messenger; dilate the capillary and make it leaky so plasma will leak out
Edema
fluid leaks out of the capillaries
Dendritic cells
release cytokines
Pyrogens
released by the white blood cells; will set the body to a higher temperature (done in medulla oblongata); chemical processes are being sped up which can kill the foreign invader faster
Adaptive immunity
the body creates specialized specialized immune cells and antibodies to fight off invaders
B lymphocytes (B cells)
start in bone marrow and become b cells; make antibodies; carried in plasma; follow clonal selection
T lymphocytes (T cells)
start in bone marrow and become progenitor cells; if progenitor cells leave and go to the thymus gland (right above heart) they become t cells
Lymphatic system
a series of tubules that collect extra fluid that escapes to the circulatory system; picks up fluid and returns it back to the circulatory system (goes in the superior vena cava)
Lymph
fluid outside the capillary
Lymph nodes
filter out anything that may have gotten into the lymph fluid
Spleen
filter of the circulatory system; without a spleen fighting off infections becomes difficult
Antigens
a foreign molecule that elicits a response from a lymphocyte/the immune system
Antibodies
proper name is immunoglobins; a protein that is secreted by b cells in response to an antigen
Epitope
part of the antigen that the antibody interacts with
Antibody-mediated immunity
a branch of the acquired immune system that uses antibodies to neutralize pathogens
Clonal selection
the process of selecting and cloning specific B cells and T cells to create an army of cells to fight the infection
Cell-surface receptors
anti-bodies that are hooked to the cells membranes
Plasma cells
make antibodies; short-lived; flow around in lymph and plasmid
Memory cells
long-lived (can live for decades); cause fast and robust response
3 ways to enhance opsonization
neutralization, agglutination, precipitation
Neutralization
smothering of bacteria and viruses (stops them from reproducing)
Agglutination
clumps bacteria together to prevent them from reproducing
Complement fixation
a medical test that detects the presence of a specific antibody or antigen that is in a patient’s blood serum
Complement protein
proteins that can span a cell membrane; float around in plasma; can be inserted into a foreign cell’s membrane and form a pore, causing it to leak out and die (lysis); can’t get into a membrane on their own so they need a landing platform which antibodies act as, only foreign cells will have those landing platforms
Two types of T-cells
helper T cells and “killer” T’s (cytotoxic)
Helper T’s
major cytokine producer; direct where everything goes; have CD4 receptors; are MHC I and MHC II
Killer T’s
directly attack foreign or damaged cells, can be activated by any infected cell; have CD8 receptors; are MHC I
Vesicles contain two major proteins
perforins and granzymes
Perforins
poke holes inside foreign cells
Granzymes
blow up lots of stuff inside the cell; great for attacking things made of cells or inside of cells (i.e. fungi, parasitic worms, cells that have been infected/are old or sick)
Antigen Presenting Cells (APC)
immune cells that process and display antigens on their surface to help other immune cells recognize them
