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VCE BIO UNIT 3 AND 4 > UNIT 4 > Flashcards

UNIT 4 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Disease

A

any condition that affects the
normal function of either a part of an organism or the complete organism

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2
Q

Non-infectious
(noncommunicable)
disease

A

a disease that cannot be transmitted
from one organism to another

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3
Q

Infectious
(communicable)
disease

A

a disease that can be transmitted from one organism to another

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4
Q

Pathogen

A

a disease-causing agent

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5
Q

Epidemic

A

the rapid spread of an infectious disease to a large number of people within a
population

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6
Q

Pandemic

A

an outbreak of infectious disease
that occurs over a wide geographical
area, affecting a large number of
people

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7
Q

Host

A

an organism that has been infected by a pathogen

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8
Q

Vector

A

a living organism that carries and transmits a pathogen from one organism to another

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9
Q

Antigen

A

a unique marker on the surface of
cells or viruses that is used in the identification of self from non-self

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10
Q

Self-antigen

A

an antigen on the surface of cells of an
organism that is identified by the immune
system as belonging to the organism and therefore does not trigger an immune
response

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11
Q

Non-self antigen

A

an antigen on the surface of cells of an organism that is identified by the immune system as foreign to the organism and triggers an immune response when
detected

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12
Q

MHC (major
histocompatibility
complex) marker

A

a protein that is found on the surface of cells and is used in the identification of pathogens in the immune response

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13
Q

Epitope

A

the specific region of an antigen that is recognised by the immune system

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14
Q

MHC Class I marker

A

a type of protein marker on the surface of all nucleated cells that assists in the identification of self from non-self

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15
Q

MHC Class II marker

A

a type of protein marker on antigen-presenting white
blood cells that is used in the activation of a specific immune response

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16
Q

Antigen-presenting cell (APC)

A

a specific type of white blood cell that uses
phagocytosis to engulf a pathogen before
displaying peptide fragments (epitopes) on its MHC Class II markers for detection by white blood cells

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17
Q

Allergen

A

any substance that causes an allergic reaction

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18
Q

Cellular pathogen

A

living organism that causes disease within a host

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19
Q

Bacteria

A

unicellular, prokaryotic
organisms that lack membrane-bound organelles

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20
Q

Tetanus

A

a bacterial disease characterised by
muscle stiffness and spasms

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21
Q

Spores (bacterial)

A

structures that bacteria form that aid in the survival of
the organism under adverse environmental conditions

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22
Q

Fungi

A

a wide variety of eukaryotic organisms that include
mushrooms, mould and yeasts

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23
Q

Terrestrial

A

describes any living organism
that lives or grows on land

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24
Q

Hyphae

A

long, branching filaments that extend off the main body of the fungus and secrete digestive enzymes

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25
Q

Mycelium

A

a collection of hyphae

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26
Q

Tinea

A

a common fungal infection that results in a red, flaky rash
in the area of the body that is affected

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27
Q

Rice blast disease

A

a fungal infection of rice that results in characteristic
lesions and spots throughout the plant’s shoot system

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28
Q

Protozoa

A

unicellular, eukaryotic organisms that belong to
the kingdom Protista; singular protozoan

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29
Q

Heterotrophic

A

describes any organism that obtains its nutrients by
feeding on organic matter

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30
Q

Cilia

A

short microtubule projections from
a cell that move to provide motility
(movement of the cell) or movement
of fluid

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31
Q

Malaria

A

a serious disease caused by the
Plasmodium protozoan, which
invades red blood cells when
transmitted by mosquito vectors
into the host

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32
Q

Endemic

A

the usual area where an
organism is found

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33
Q

Non-cellular pathogen

A

a disease-causing agent that
lacks cellular structures and
cannot replicate outside a host
cell

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34
Q

Virus

A

a non-cellular pathogen that
causes disease by taking over host
cell machinery to rapidly produce
identical virus copies, which
further infect host cells,
disrupting normal cellular function

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35
Q

Virion

A

a single virus particle existing
outside a host cell

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36
Q

Capsid

A

protective protein coat that
surrounds the genetic material
of a virion

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37
Q

Viral envelope

A

the lipid-based, outermost layer
of the capsid on some types of
viruses

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38
Q

Dormant

A

when a virus is present within
the host but is inactive and
therefore not currently causing
symptoms associated with
the disease

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39
Q

Haemagglutinin

A

a glycoprotein embedded in the
viral envelope of the influenza
virus; plays an important role in
the attachment and entry of the
virus into the host cell

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40
Q

Neuraminidase

A

a glycoprotein embedded in the
viral envelope of the influenza virus; plays an important role in the detachment of new viral particles from the host cell, freeing them to infect new host cells

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41
Q

Epidemiology

A

a branch of medicine based on the study
of disease distribution and control

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42
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

microscopic channels that connect the cell
walls of plant cells, allowing communication and transport between the cells

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43
Q

Bacteriophage

A

a virus that specifically infects bacteria

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44
Q

Prion

A

a pathogenic protein with a mutant structure that can trigger normal proteins to fold abnormally, resulting in disease

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45
Q

PrPC

A

normal form of the protein associated with
prions

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46
Q

PrPSc

A

disease-causing, mutant prion

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47
Q

Innate response

A

a non-specific defence against
a pathogen

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48
Q

First line of defence

A

the first innate response; consists
of physical, chemical and microbiota
barriers

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49
Q

Normal flora

A

naturally occurring microorganisms
that live in or on animals and plants and do not cause harm or an immune response

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50
Q

Surfactants

A

molecules that reduce the
surface tension of water and
aqueous solutions

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51
Q

Saponin

A

soapy compound that occurs
naturally in plants; has anti-fungal and
antimicrobial properties

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52
Q

Defensins

A

proteins that are toxic to microbes

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53
Q

Blood–brain barrier

A

a barrier of specialised
epithelial cells in the brain
and spinal cord that prevents
pathogens and toxins reaching
the neurons

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54
Q

Pathogenic bacteria

A

bacteria that cause harm and an immune
response

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55
Q

Inflammatory response

A

heat, pain, redness, swelling and
loss of function as part of the innate immune
response to harmful stimuli

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56
Q

Mast cell

A

white blood cell involved in inflammatory
response, releasing histamine, triggering
inflammation

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57
Q

Histamine

A

compound released by
cells to start an inflammatory
response

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58
Q

Macrophage

A

large white blood cell that carries
out phagocytosis and may act
as an antigenpresenting cell

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59
Q

Cytokines

A

compounds released by cells as chemical
signals to other cells

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60
Q

Antigen-presenting cell
(APC)

A

a specific type of white blood
cell that uses phagocytosis to
engulf a pathogen

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61
Q

Lysis

A

breakdown of the cell membrane

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62
Q

Vasodilation

A

the widening of a blood vessel (especially
capillaries), to increase blood flow

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63
Q

Fever

A

a rise in body temperature caused by infection

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64
Q

Lymphocyte

A

a type of white blood cell; includes B and
T cells

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65
Q

Adaptive immune response

A

response of the vertebrate immune system
to a specific antigen, which typically
results in immunological memory

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66
Q

Interstitial fluid

A

fluid that collects in spaces between
cells and tissue

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67
Q

Lymph

A

colourless fluid that flows through
the lymphatic system

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68
Q

Lymphoid organ

A

organ involved in the production or function of
lymphocytes

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69
Q

Phagosome

A

a vesicle that engulfs a pathogen during phagocytosis

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70
Q

Neutrophil

A

white blood cell that carries out phagocytosis and kills pathogens with defensins

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71
Q

Dendritic cell

A

white blood cell with many folds and projections in its membrane, carries out phagocytosis and acts as an antigen-presenting cell to the adaptive immune system

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72
Q

Natural killer (NK) cell

A

white blood cell involved in innate immune response; kills infected host cells and cancer cells

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73
Q

Perforin

A

a protein that kills cells by making holes in their plasma membranes

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74
Q

Eosinophil

A

white blood cell that targets parasites

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75
Q

Phagocytosis

A

a type of endocytosis in which a solid substance enters a cell via vesicle mediated transport

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76
Q

Apoptosis

A

death and disintegration of a cell through a controlled process

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77
Q

Fever

A

a rise in body temperature caused by infection

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78
Q

Immunological memory

A

the ability of the immune system
to quickly and specifically recognise an
antigen that the body has previously
encountered and initiate a corresponding
immune response

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79
Q

Clonal selection theory

A

the scientific theory that a specific antigen
activates a specific lymphocyte
that has a complementary receptor

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80
Q

Naive

A

not yet activated

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81
Q

Antibody

A

a protein that has a Y shape containing
two identical arms with an antigen-binding
site specific to a antigen (or allergen); also
referred to as immunoglobulins (Ig)

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82
Q

Clonal expansion

A

the proliferation of a lymphocyte that has been selected by an antigen

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83
Q

Agglutination

A

where antibodies join to the pathogen’s
antigens, joining more than one pathogen
together

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84
Q

Effector cell

A

a cell that has been activated to perform its role

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85
Q

Active immunity

A

when an individual’s adaptive immune
response is activated

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86
Q

Passive immunity

A

short-term immunity resulting from a
person receiving antibodies from another person or animal; no memory

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87
Q

Vaccination

A

the administration of a vaccine to cause an adaptive immune response

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88
Q

Vaccine

A

substance that contains an agent (usually
an antigen or an attenuated version of the pathogen) that will induce an adaptive immune
response when administered

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89
Q

Attenuated

A

describes a pathogen that
has been altered to remove its
harmfulness

90
Q

Herd immunity

A

when a large percentage of a population is
immune to a disease (through vaccination), slowing the spread of the disease and protecting those who are not immune

91
Q

Disease

A

any condition that affects the normal function of either a part of an organism or the complete organism

92
Q

Infection

A

when a pathogen has breached the first line of defence and begun to replicate

93
Q

Virulence

A

how likely a pathogen is to cause harm/ disease

94
Q

Contagious

A

describes a pathogen that is able to spread from an infected
person to others

95
Q

Fatality

A

the occurrence of death

96
Q

Epidemiologist

A

professional who studies the occurrence of diseases in a population

97
Q

Infectious

A

able to be transmitted between hosts

98
Q

Emerging infectious disease

A

a disease not yet seen in people, or a disease that is increasing in incidence or geographical range

99
Q

Re-emerging infectious disease

A

a disease that appears again after having previously been eliminated

100
Q

Indirect transmission

A

transmission of a pathogen from a location where it has been away from its host for a long time

101
Q

Selection pressure

A

the conditions or factors that influence allele frequencies in a population by contributing to the selection of which phenotypes survive in a given environment,
e.g. availability of resources, environmental
conditions, predators and disease

102
Q

Reservoir

A

original or usual
site of a disease
in relation to its
spread

103
Q

Transmission

A

how a pathogen
is passed between hosts

104
Q

Immunotherapy

A

a treatment that uses activation or suppression of the immune system

105
Q

Monoclonal
antibody (mAb)

A

antibody made by cloning a unique parent
immune cell, produced in large
quantities in the laboratory as a drug targeting
specific cells or substances

106
Q

Bispecific monoclonal antibody

A

a monoclonal antibody that has two different antigen-binding sites

107
Q

Conjugated monoclonal
antibody

A

an antibody that has been combined with a radioactive substance or chemotherapy agent (a cytotoxin)

108
Q

Myeloma cell

A

an abnormal plasma cell
used in the production of
monoclonal antibodies

109
Q

Hybridoma

A

a cell that is a result of combining a B lymphocyte and a cancer cell

110
Q

Genotype

A

the genetic make-up or the combination of alleles for a particular gene of an organism

111
Q

Phenotype

A

a physical characteristic determined
by genotype and environment

112
Q

Genetic diversity

A

the genetic variability within a species

113
Q

Adaptations

A

the behavioural, physiological and structural features of an organism that help them survive in an environment

114
Q

Population

A

a group of individuals of the same
species living in the same region at a given time

115
Q

Species

A

a group of organisms that can interbreed,
producing fertile and viable offspring

116
Q

Gene pool

A

the sum total of alleles present in a population of organisms

117
Q

Allele frequency

A

the proportion of a particular allele within a
population

118
Q

Evolution

A

a change in the allele frequencies of
a population over time

119
Q

Mutation

A

a permanent change in the nucleotide
sequence of a section of DNA

120
Q

Mutagenic agents

A

agents known to cause mutations;
for example, some radiation sources and
chemicals; also called mutagens

121
Q

Point mutation

A

a change to one base in the nucleotide sequence of a section of DNA; includes base
substitutions and frameshift mutations

122
Q

Substitution mutation

A

a type of point mutation that occurs when one nitrogenous base in a gene is replaced with another base; includes silent, missense and nonsense mutations

123
Q

Silent mutation

A

a mutation where the change in the
nucleotide sequence doesn’t change
the amino acid that is coded for

124
Q

Missense mutation

A

a mutation in which the base change in the
nucleotide sequence of the DNA changes the amino acid that is coded for; a type of substitution point mutation

125
Q

Nonsense mutation

A

a mutation that occurs when the base change in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA codes for a STOP codon, prematurely halting the production of the polypeptide; a type of substitution point mutation

126
Q

Frameshift mutation

A

a type of point mutation that occurs when
one base is inserted into or deleted from a
gene, causing an incorrect reading of the codons due to a shift in the reading frame

127
Q

Block mutation

A

a type of mutation that affects large sections of DNA, typically containing multiple genes; also called chromosome mutation

128
Q

Chromosome abnormality

A

mutation that involves a whole chromosome, or a change in the number of chromosomes,
which can be identified using a karyotype; examples are aneuploidy and polyploidy

129
Q

Karyotype

A

a pictorial representation of chromosomes that allows a geneticist to determine size, banding pattern, shape and number of chromosomes in an individual’s somatic cell; allows the determination of diploid number, gender and chromosomal abnormalities

130
Q

Aneuploidy

A

when a cell has one more or one less chromosome than expected, usually due to
non-disjunction

131
Q

Polyploidy

A

a condition in which an organism has more than two full sets of chromosomes in its cells;
more common in plants than animals

132
Q

Gene flow

A

the exchange of genetic information, specifically alleles, between populations

133
Q

Genetic drift

A

a random change in allele frequency, occurring
naturally in every population, due to chance events

134
Q

Bottleneck effect

A

when a population is drastically reduced to low
numbers by a random or chance event and the
allele frequencies of the surviving population do not reflect the genetic diversity of the original population

135
Q

Founder effect

A

when a small sample of a large population moves away to colonise a new area and becomes isolated; the allele frequencies of the founder population do not represent the genetic diversity of the larger original population

136
Q

Selection pressures

A

the conditions or factors that influence allele
frequencies in a population by contributing to
the selection of which phenotypes survive in a given environment, e.g. availability of resources, environmental conditions, predators and disease

137
Q

Natural selection

A

an evolutionary process whereby those individuals in a population that have a particular set of alleles are best suited to
the environment and will survive, reproduce and pass on their genetic information to the next generation

138
Q

Selective advantage

A

a trait or phenotype that provides a survival advantage

139
Q

Selective breeding or artificial selection

A

a process whereby humans intervene in the breeding of a species to keep desired features in a population that are economically beneficial or aesthetically pleasing, by selecting which organisms are to reproduce

140
Q

Bacterial resistance

A

the ability of bacteria to survive and
reproduce in the presence of an antibiotic
that has been designed to slow their growth or
kill them; arises by mutation and becomes
widespread when antibiotics are over-used

141
Q

Conjugation

A

the process by which genetic material is
exchanged between a donor bacterium and
a recipient bacterium; occurs through a tube via direct cell–cell contact; also known as horizontal gene transfer

142
Q

Epidemic

A

the rapid spread of an infectious disease to a
large number of people within a population

143
Q

Pandemic

A

an outbreak of infectious disease that occurs over a wide geographical area, affecting a
large number of people

144
Q

Antigenic drift

A

mutations altering viral surface antigens,
making the virus unrecognisable to the host’s
immune system; can result in an epidemic

145
Q

Antigenic shift

A

reassortment of genes on genomes from
different viruses infecting the same host cell, altering viral surface antigens, resulting in
novel strains that can cause pandemics

146
Q

Fertile

A

able to reproduce

147
Q

Viable

A

able to survive

148
Q

Speciation

A

the evolutionary process of forming a new
species from a pre-existing ancestral species

149
Q

Reproductive isolation

A

the inability of two groups of organisms to interbreed successfully; genetic isolation also ensures there is no gene flow between the
two populations

150
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

a form of speciation that occurs when a
geographical barrier physically divides a population; the two subpopulations accumulate so many genetic differences that
they become reproductively isolated and are considered different species

151
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

a form of speciation that occurs without
the involvement of a physical barrier; often
occurs in plants as a consequence of
polyploidy

152
Q

Divergent evolution

A

where two or more species form from a single ancestral species over time

153
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

the rapid diversification of a large number
of related species from a single ancestral
species

154
Q

Plate tectonics

A

a scientific theory that focuses on the
separation of Earth’s crust into plates that
move across the underlying mantle

155
Q

Geological time scale

A

a scale dividing Earth’s history into intervals
according to the geological and biological events and conditions present at that time

156
Q

Biodiversity

A

the variety of plant and animal life in an
ecosystem at any given time

157
Q

Period

A

a time interval characterised by specific rock
layers; periods are subdivisions of eras

158
Q

Era

A

a subdivision of an eon

159
Q

Eon

A

a long period of time that consists of at least two eras

160
Q

Supereon

A

a period of geological time that consists of more than one eon

161
Q

Cyanobacteria

A

a group of prokaryotic microorganisms
that are capable of photosynthesis;
recognised as the earliest form
of life on Earth

162
Q

Stromatolite

A

a structure that consists of layered deposits
made by cyanobacterial colonies; fossilised
stromatolites are among the earliest fossils known

163
Q

Invertebrate

A

an organism that
does not have a
backbone

164
Q

Cambrian explosion

A

a rapid increase in complex biodiversity
within the fossil record that occurred at the
beginning of the Cambrian period

165
Q

Arthropod

A

a type of animal that has no internal
backbone, a segmented body and a hard,
external covering known as an exoskeleton

166
Q

Brachiopod

A

a marine animal with no internal backbone and a hinged upper and lower shell

167
Q

Chordate

A

any animal that contains evidence of a spinal cord at some point in its development

168
Q

Vertebrate

A

having a backbone

169
Q

Myriapod

A

a subphylum of mostly terrestrial arthropods including milipedes, centipedes, and other ‘many-legged’ invertebrates

170
Q

Tetrapod

A

any vertebrate animal that has four legs
or limb-like attachments, e.g. amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals

171
Q

Amphibians

A

a class of tetrapods that are semiterrestrial,
with young living in water before moving to
land as adults; examples are frogs, toads and
salamanders

172
Q

Reptiles

A

a class of air-breathing tetrapods with skin covered in scales, that lay eggs on land

173
Q

Theropod

A

a type of carnivorous dinosaur with short forelimbs that ran on powerful, hind legs

174
Q

Sauropod

A

a large herbivorous dinosaur characterised by its long neck and tail, and four-legged stance

175
Q

Niche

A

the role that a species plays within its ecosystem

176
Q

Hominoid

A

a superfamily consisting of all current and extinct humans and apes

177
Q

Hominin

A

the subfamily consisting of all current and extinct bipedal primates

178
Q

Megafauna

A

large or giant mammals that were still living in the Quarternary period

179
Q

Background extinction rate

A

the normal extinction rate expected to occur over a period of time due to natural environmental factor

180
Q

Fossil

A

the remains or traces of a preexisting life form

181
Q

Fossil record

A

a record of organisms that once lived, through
geological time, as documented by fossils

182
Q

Palaeontologist

A

a scientist who studies fossils

183
Q

Trace fossil

A

fossilised signs or remains of an organism’s
activity, e.g. tracks

184
Q

Petrification

A

the replacement of an organism’s organic matter with minerals, turning it into a stony material

185
Q

Mould fossil

A

an impression that forms from the decay of the organism within a rock

186
Q

Cast fossil

A

fossil formed when an organism decays, leaving an impression, which fills with minerals, resulting in a 3D object of the organism’s external surface

187
Q

Sedimentary rock

A

a type of rock that is formed from the
accumulation of sediment into layers

188
Q

Metamorphic rock

A

a type of rock that arises from the
transformation of existing rocks

189
Q

Sediment

A

naturally occurring material that is formed through the effects of weathering and erosion

190
Q

Transitional fossil

A

a hybrid fossil that shows traits of both an ancestral group and a descendant group

191
Q

Absolute dating

A

determines the actual age of the specimen being analysed

192
Q

Relative dating

A

determines the age of a specimen by
comparing its placement with that of other
fossils or the rock layers it is found in

193
Q

Stratigraphy

A

a branch of geology that uses the ‘principle of
rock succession’ to examine the order and position of strata in connection with fossilised
remains

194
Q

Index fossil

A

a fossil that is used to date and correlate
the strata within which it is found

195
Q

Radiometric dating

A

absolute dating that uses the concept of
isotope decay to determine the age of a geological sample

196
Q

Isotope

A

variant of an element that differs in the number of neutrons in the nucleus

197
Q

Half-life

A

the time taken for 50% of a an unstable
parent isotope to decay into its corresponding
stable daughter isotope

198
Q

Structural morphology

A

the study of an organism’s features and form
to determine the evolutionary relationship of
species

199
Q

Homologous structure

A

a structure within a group of species that
performs a different function yet has the
same underlying structure

200
Q

Divergent evolution

A

where two or more species form from a single ancestral species over time

201
Q

Vestigial structure

A

a structure within an organism that is no longer functional but served a purpose in a common ancestor

202
Q

Primate

A

the order consisting of all current
and extinct humans, apes and monkeys,
characterised by having dextrous hands with opposable thumbs and a relatively large and developed brain

203
Q

Molecular homology

A

the analysis of DNA and amino acid sequences
as evidence of evolutionary relationships

204
Q

Phylogeny

A

a branch of science that studies the evolutionary relationships between a group of species

205
Q

Phylogenetic tree

A

a branching diagram used to represent the
evolutionary relationships between species

206
Q

Taxonomy

A

the process of identifying, naming and
grouping organisms

207
Q

Homologous structure

A

a structure within a group of species
that performs a different function yet has the same underlying structure

208
Q

Molecular phylogeny

A

comparison of nucleotide sequences of
genes and amino acid sequences of proteins,
from which evolutionary relationships can
be inferred

209
Q

Primate

A

the order consisting of all current
and extinct humans, apes and monkeys,
characterised by dextrous hands with opposable thumbs and a relatively large,
developed brain

210
Q

Hominoid

A

the superfamily consisting of all current and
extinct humans and apes

211
Q

Hominin

A

the subfamily consisting of all current and
extinct bipedal primates

212
Q

Bipedal

A

able to walk on two legs or upright; bi = two, pedal = foot/feet

213
Q

Genus

A

a group of related organisms that share a recent common ancestor

214
Q

Species

A

a group of organisms that can interbreed,
producing fertile and viable offspring

215
Q

Bipedalism

A

the characteristic of being bipedal,
i.e. walking upright on two legs

216
Q

Foramen magnum

A

hole in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord enters/exits the skull

217
Q

Molecular homology

A

the analysis of DNA and amino acid sequences
as evidence of evolutionary relationships

218
Q

Molecular clock

A

using the predicted mutation rat e of
DNA (or amino acid) sequences to determine
the approximate time at which two species
diverged

219
Q

Connection to Country

A

the relationship between people and their
indigenous land or environment

220
Q

Interbreed

A

mate with an organism of another species
(sometimes used between different genetic groups or populations)

221
Q

Putative

A

a term used to describe something that
is expected or assumed to have existed, without any current direct proof

VCE BIO UNIT 3 AND 4 (3 decks)

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