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VCE BIO UNIT 3 AND 4 > UNIT 3 > Flashcards

UNIT 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Polymer

A

a molecule made up of a large
number of smaller, repeating units

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2
Q

Monomer

A

a molecule that forms bonds with
other identical molecules as the
repeating units that make up a polymer

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3
Q

Nucleotide

A

the monomer (building block) of
nucleic acids which are joined together
to form DNA or RNA (polymers);
consists of a phosphate group, sugar and
nitrogenous base

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4
Q

Complementary

A

the term used to describe
the fact that a nitrogenous base
can only pair with one other
nitrogenous base (cytosine is
complementary to guanine,
adenine is complementary
to thymine)

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5
Q

Gene expression

A

conversion of the code in DNA
of a gene into a protein through
protein synthesis

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6
Q

Transcription

A

the process through which DNA is converted to messenger RNA
(mRNA) and the genetic code
in the DNA is copied to the
mRNA

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7
Q

Enzyme

A

a type of protein also referred to
as a biological catalyst, that
speeds up reactions within
an organism by lowering
activation energy

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8
Q

Promoter

A

the region of a gene at which
RNA polymerase binds, to initiate
transcription

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9
Q

Terminator

A

the region of a gene at which transcription
stops and the RNA polymerase dissociates from the strand

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10
Q

Intron

A

a region of a gene that contains
sequences that do not code for
the protein to be expressed

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11
Q

Exon

A

a region of a gene that
contains genetic information that codes for the
specific protein to be synthesised

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12
Q

Translation

A

the process through which the information
in mRNA is converted into a sequence of
amino acids to synthesise a
protein

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13
Q

Codon

A

bases in mRNA that code for a specific amino
acid

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14
Q

Anticodon

A

a set of three bases on tRNA that are complementary to codons in mRNA

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15
Q

Amino acid

A

the monomer that forms polypeptide chains and proteins

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16
Q

Universal triplet code

A

the genetic coding system
based on codons with three bases,
shared by most organisms

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17
Q

Degenerate

A

describes a genetic code in which multiple codons code for the same amino acid; also
referred to as redundant

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18
Q

Mutation

A

a permanent change in the
nucleotide sequence of a section of DNA

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19
Q

Biomacromolecule

A

a large biological polymer, such as a protein, a nucleic acid or a carbohydrate

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20
Q

Peptide bond

A

a chemical bond between two
amino acids

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21
Q

Polypeptide

A

a long chain of amino acids
forming part of a protein

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22
Q

Condensation reaction

A

a reaction in which two molecules are joined to make a larger molecule, resulting in the loss of a smaller molecule as another product (in organisms, this is usually
water)

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23
Q

Proteome

A

the complete collection of proteins within
an organism at a given time

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24
Q

Coding region

A

the introns and exons of a gene that is
transcribed into pre-mRNA

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25
Q

Operator

A

a section of DNA code where the repressor
protein can bind

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26
Q

Repressor

A

a regulatory protein that binds to DNA,
inhibiting transcription

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27
Q

Regulatory gene

A

a region of DNA that codes for
a regulatory protein, which controls the
expression of other genes

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28
Q

Structural gene

A

a region of DNA that codes for a protein that performs a specific function for a cell or organism

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29
Q

Operon

A

a series of genes under the control of a single promoter and operator

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30
Q

Restriction enzyme

A

a bacterially produced protein that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides
called a recognition site; also known as a restriction endonuclease

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31
Q

Recognition (restriction) site

A

a specific sequence of nucleotides that
is the location for a restriction
enzyme to cut

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32
Q

Digestion

A

(in the context of restriction enzymes) a
reaction using an enzyme to break down large molecules

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33
Q

Sticky ends

A

short lengths of unpaired
nucleotides in DNA resulting from
a staggered cut by a restriction
enzyme

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34
Q

Blunt ends

A

short lengths of fully paired
nucleotides in DNA resulting from
a straight cut by a restriction
enzyme

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35
Q

Palindrome

A

a sequence that reads the same in both
directions

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36
Q

DNA ligase

A

an enzyme that joins two pieces
of DNA at their sugar–phosphate
backbone

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37
Q

Primer

A

synthetic singlestranded piece of DNA (or RNA) complementary to a specific sequence of nucleotides

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38
Q

Gel electrophoresis

A

a technique used to separate different-sized fragments of DNA (or protein)

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39
Q

DNA standard

A

a DNA sample that contains fragments of
DNA of known size that is used to compare the sizes of unknown DNA fragments in base pairs or kilo base pairs; also known as a DNA ladder

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40
Q

DNA profiling

A

a method of DNA analysis in which
regions of DNA from different individuals are analysed and compared

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41
Q

Variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs)

A

a region of a chromosome that shows variation between individuals in length and
number of repeats of nucleotide sequences; also referred to as short tandem repeats (STRs) when 2–6 base
pairs long

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42
Q

Allele

A

an alternative form of a gene

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43
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

chromosomes that have
matching structural
features (size, banding pattern,
centromere location) and
gene loci

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44
Q

Genetic screening

A

DNA profiling to determine
whether an individual
is carrying a particular gene
for a disorder

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45
Q

Ethics

A

moral principles
that guide our
beliefs about
what is right or
wrong conduct

46
Q

Stakeholder

A

an individual
or organisation
who will be
affected by the
factor under
consideration

47
Q

Vector

A

a DNA molecule
used as a
vehicle to carry
foreign genetic
material from
one organism to
another

48
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

DNA that has
been artificially
formed by
combining DNA
from different
organisms

49
Q

Gene cloning

A

the production
of exact copies
(clones) of a
gene (DNA
sequence) using
various DNA
manipulation
techniques

50
Q

Autoimmune disease

A

a disease in
which the
immune system
acts abnormally
and begins to
attack the body’s
own cells (self
cells)

51
Q

Transformed bacteria

A

bacteria that have taken
up foreign DNA; in gene
cloning, the foreign DNA
is in the recombinant
plasmid

52
Q

Antibiotic

A

a substance that inhibits
the growth of bacteria;
an example is penicillin

53
Q

Genetically modified organisms (GMO)

A

an organism
that has had its
genome altered

54
Q

Transgenically
modified
organism (TMO)

A

a type of GMO
that has had
genetic material
from a different
species inserted
into its genome

55
Q

Genome editing

A

(also referred to as
gene editing) the
insertion, removal
or replacement of
DNA within the
the genome of a living
cell

56
Q

CRISPR

A

a section of
DNA containing
short repetitions
of nucleotides,
involved in
bacterial defence
against viruses

57
Q

CRISPR-Cas9

A

an immune system in bacteria that uses
CRISPR nucleotide sequences and the
Cas9 DNA-cutting enzyme, also
modified for use as a genome editing tool

58
Q

Cas9

A

an endonuclease (enzyme) that cuts
DNA at a specific point determined by
guide RNA (gRNA)

59
Q

Guide RNA (gRNA)

A

a specific RNA sequence that recognises the desired DNA and directs the
Cas enzyme there to cut DNA

60
Q

Enzyme

A

a type of protein, also referred to as a biological catalyst, that speeds up reactions within an organism by lowering activation energy

61
Q

substrate

A

a molecule that binds to the active site of an enzyme and then takes part in a reaction; also referred to as a reactant

62
Q

Catalyst

A

a substance that increases the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy and providing an alternative reaction pathway

63
Q

Activation energy

A

the minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to proceed

64
Q

Active site

A

the region of an enzyme where the substrate binds for a chemical reaction to take place

65
Q

Catabolic

A

describes a type of chemical reaction that releases energy and involves breaking down molecules into simpler components

66
Q

Anabolic

A

describes a type of chemical reaction that requires energy and involves constructing molecules from simpler components

67
Q

Allosteric site

A

binding site on an enzyme where molecules other than the substrate may bind

68
Q

Coenzyme

A

an organic molecule that contains carbon and binds to enzymes to help them to function eg. NADP, NAD, FAD

69
Q

Denaturation

A

the process by which a protein loses its 3D conformational structure through the breaking of hydrogen bonds, caused by an external stress temperature or pH

70
Q

Enzyme saturation

A

the point at which the rate of reaction reaches a maximum with no further increase at a specific enzyme concentration

71
Q

Competitive inhibition

A

the process of disrupting the function of an enzyme by blocking its active site with a molecule other than the substrate

72
Q

Non-competitive inhibition

A

the process of disrupting the function of an enzyme through a molecule binding to another site, on the enzyme, which alters the shape of the active site in such a way that the substrate cannot be blind

73
Q

Inhibitor

A

a molecule that is involved the disrupting the function of an enzyme, either directly

74
Q

Autotroph

A

an organism that
synthesises its own
organic materials
(food), by capturing
light energy and
taking in inorganic
compounds from its
physical environment,
to meet its energy
needs (auto = self,
troph = food)

75
Q

Photosynthesis

A

a chemical reaction
in which light
energy is used to
convert the inorganic
compounds carbon
dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) into the
organic compound
glucose; occurs in the
chloroplast (photo
= light, synthesis =
build or put together)

76
Q

Heterotroph

A

an organism that
ingests organic
materials by feeding
on autotrophs or
on other organisms
and their products,
in order to convert
energy into the form
of energy stored in
ATP (heteros = other,
trophe = food)

77
Q

ATP (adenosine
triphosphate)

A

the main immediate
source of chemical
energy in a cell,
powering most
cellular processes;
when a phosphate
group is removed,
energy is released
and ADP is formed

78
Q

Cellular respiration

A

a series of chemical
reactions in which the organic
compound glucose
is broken down,
producing various
products (depending
on presence or
absence of oxygen)
and energy stored
in ATP

79
Q

Chlorophyll

A

the green
pigment on
the thylakoid
membranes of
the chloroplasts
of green plants;
absorbs light
energy for
photosynthesis

80
Q

Granum

A

(plural grana) a
stack of thylakoid
membranes
inside the
chloroplast of
plant and algae
cells

81
Q

Thylakoid
membrane

A

disc-shaped
interconnected
membrane-bound
compartments
inside a
chloroplast that
make up the
grana and are
the location of
the pigment
chlorophyll, and
therefore the
site of the light
dependent stage
of photosynthesis

82
Q

Stroma

A

the gel-like
fluid inside a
chloroplast which
surrounds the
grana; site of the
light independent
stage of
photosynthesis

83
Q

Light dependent stage

A

the first stage of
photosynthesis;
occurs in
the thylakoid
membranes and
involves the
splitting of water
using light energy

84
Q

Light independent stage

A

the second
stage of
photosynthesis;
occurs in the
stroma of the
chloroplast and
involves the use
of carbon dioxide
to create glucose;
also called the
Calvin Cycle or
carbon fixation

85
Q

Photolysis

A

the splitting of
water using the
light energy from
the Sun

86
Q

ADP (adenosine
diphosphate)

A

a compound
composed of
adenosine and
two phosphate
groups that can
store energy when
another inorganic
phosphate group
is added, forming
ATP

87
Q

NADP+

A

a coenzyme
that accepts
and transfers
hydrogen
ions from
one place to
another during
photosynthesis

88
Q

Coenzyme

A

an organic
molecule that
contains carbon
and bind to
enzymes to help
them to function;
examples are
NADP, NAD
and FAD

89
Q

RuBP

A

ribulose
bisphosphate, a
5C (five-carbon)
compound that
combines with
carbon dioxide at
the start of the
Calvin Cycle of
photosynthesis to
form PGA

90
Q

Rubisco

A

RuBP carboxylase,
an enzyme that
catalyses the
formation of
PGA by fixing
carbon dioxide to
RuBP during the
Calvin Cycle of
photosynthesis

91
Q

PGA

A

3-phosphoglycerate,
a 3C (three-carbon)
compound formed
when the enzyme
Rubisco catalyses
the attachment
of a carbon from
carbon dioxide to
RuBP during the
Calvin Cycle of
photosynthesis

92
Q

PGAL

A

glyceraldehyde3-phosphate, a
3C (three-carbon)
sugar that leads
to the formation
of glucose and
regenerates RuBP
in the process to
continue the Calvin
Cycle

93
Q

Rate

A

the speed at
which a process
occurs, or how
quickly the
reactants are
used up and the
products are
created

94
Q

Limiting factor

A

any factor that
slows down
the rate of
photosynthesis
when there is
not enough
of it, for
example, carbon
dioxide, water,
chlorophyll and
light energy

95
Q

C3 plants

A

plants that fix CO2 from the atmosphere
to form 3-phosphoglycerate or PGA, which
contains three carbon atoms; are better
suited to cooler and temperate
climates; examples are rice, wheat,
soybeans and cotton

96
Q

Photorespiration

A

the series of
reactions that
occur as a
consequence of
Rubisco using
O2 as a substrate
instead of CO2;
an inefficient
process that
cannot produce
glucose

97
Q

C4 plants

A

plants that fix
CO 2 to form
malate, which
contains four
carbon atoms;
better suited
to grasslands;
examples are
maize and sugar
cane

98
Q

CAM plants

A

plants that fix
CO 2 to form
malate, which
contains four
carbon atoms;
better suited
to deserts;
examples
are cacti and
pineapples

99
Q

Energy shuttle

A

the cycling
between the
formation of ATP
when energy
is stored and
the formation
of ADP and
Pi
when energy
is released; also
known as the
ATP–ADP cycle

100
Q

Glycolysis

A

the first stage
of cellular
respiration,
where glucose
is broken down
into two pyruvate
molecules in the
cytosol, producing
2 ATP and 2
NADH; does not
require oxygen

101
Q

Aerobic cellular respiration

A

cellular respiration
that occurs in
the presence
of oxygen and
involves the
transformation
of the chemical
energy stored
in glucose into
ATP; includes
the Krebs Cycle
and the electron
transport chain,
which occur in
the mitochondria

102
Q

Anaerobic cellular respiration

A

cellular
respiration
that occurs in
the absence
of oxygen and
involves the
transformation
of the chemical
energy stored
in glucose into
2 ATP; the
products depend
on the type of
organism carrying
out the process

103
Q

NAD+

A

a coenzyme
that accepts
hydrogen ions
and transfers
them from one
place to another
during cellular
respiration

104
Q

Crista

A

a fold in
the inner
membrane of a
mitochondrion
and site of the
third stage of
aerobic cellular
respiration,
the electron
transport chain

105
Q

Matrix

A

the fluid
component of a
mitochondrion
and site of the
second stage of
aerobic cellular
respiration, the
Krebs Cycle

106
Q

Fermentation

A

the process by
which glucose
is broken down
in the absence
of oxygen to
produce 2 ATP;
also called
anaerobic
cellular
respiration

107
Q

Gene editing

A

the insertion,
removal or
replacement of
DNA within the
genome of a
living organism

108
Q

Biofuel

A

fuel produced
from biomass;
usually liquid

109
Q

Biomass

A

organic material,
including plant
material, animal
by-products,
microbes and
waste material;
produced by
many different
industries

110
Q

First-generation biofuel

A

a biofuel
produced
from edible
feedstocks,
e.g. starch and
glucose from
plants like corn
and sugar cane

111
Q

Second-generation
biofuel

A

a biofuel produced from
non-edible feedstocks, e.g.
cellulose and other fibrous
plant materials derived from
crop residues, straw and
municipal waste

VCE BIO UNIT 3 AND 4 (3 decks)

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