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BI 122 > Unit 4 > Flashcards

Unit 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the Urinary system

A
  1. Remove substances from blood
  2. regulate various metabolic processes
  3. form urine
  4. regulate blood pressure
  5. maintain blood pH
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2
Q

Function of Kidneys

A
  1. volume and composition and pH of body fluids
  2. RBC formation
  3. blood pressure
  4. absorption of Ca by activating vit. D
  5. elimination of N and S compounds
  6. formation and concentration of urine
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3
Q

Neuron

A

functional unit of Kidney

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4
Q

Renal corpuscle (apart nephron)

A
  1. glomerulus- tangle of blood arterioles
  2. glomerular
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5
Q

glomerulonephritis

A

inflammation of the glomerulus resulting from infection, malaria, diabetes, toxins, etc.

glomeruli become plugged with antien/anti-body complexes followed by WBC accumulation resulting in renal failure

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6
Q

renal tubules (apart nephron)

A

glomerular capsule to proximal convoluted tuble to nephron loop to distal convoluted tuble to collecting duct.

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7
Q

step 1 of urine formation

A

glomerular filtration:
movement of substances from glom into glom capsule via pressure (filtration) and concentration gradient (diffusion). Proteins and other large molecules do not pass. Equalling an increase colloid osmotic pressure pulling fluid back into glomerulus

diameter of afferent arteriols are biggere then efferent because increased pressure in afferent forces filtrate through glomerulus

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8
Q

acute renal failure

A

blood pressure drops from shockm hemorrhaging, dehydration, the afferent arteriole pressure decreases resulting inf filtration rate decreasing.

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9
Q

step 2 urine formation

A

tubular reabsorption:
movement of substances from tubular filtrate to interstitial fluid to peritubular capillary via passive or active transport

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10
Q

glucose in urine

A

glucose requires active transport. If glucose molecules exceed capacity of active transport, glucose appears in urine. Glucosuria as in diabetes mellitus

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11
Q

osmotic diuresis

A

glucosuria causes water to be drawn into renal tubules increasing urine volume

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12
Q

nephrontic syndrome

A

occurs when disease increases glomerular membranes permeability and allow proteins to pass into tubules: urine (proteinuria). result in systemic edema

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13
Q

step 3 urine formation

A

tubular secretion:
movement of substances from peritubular capillary to interstitial fluid to renal tubule

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14
Q

urine formation equation

A

urine vol. = filtration vol. - reabsorption vol. + secretion vol.
or…
urine vol. = filtration vol. + secretion vol. - reabsorption vol

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15
Q

kidney stones

A

mineral deposits. May resut in renal inflammation, renal failure or my plug lumen of ureter causing ureteritis and stopping flow of urine. May also plug urethral openeing in bladder. 60% pass naturally but nery painfully.

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16
Q

Uring composition

A
  1. water- 95%
  2. urea- from amino acid catabolism
  3. uric acid- from nucleic acid catabolism
  4. creatinine- from creatine catabolism
  5. electrolytes- water soluble
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17
Q

ureters

A

deliver urine from renal pelvis to urinary bladder

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18
Q

ureters structure

A
  1. mucousal layer: mucous lining is transitional epi. and extends into tubules
  2. muscular layer: peristalsis begins in pelvis and moves down ureters moving urine into bladder past valve
    3.fibrous coat
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19
Q

cystitis

A

bladder infection

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20
Q

ureteritis

A

ureters infection

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21
Q

nephritis

A

kidney infection

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22
Q

UTI

A

most common in female due to short urethra

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23
Q

urinary bladder

A

storage of urine

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24
Q

urinary bladder structure

A
  1. mucosal layer- tran. epi.
  2. submucosal layer- CT w/ increased number elastic fibers
  3. muscular layer- interlaced smoother muscle forms the detrusor muscle and internal urethral sphincter
  4. serous layer- parietal peritoneum (superior surface only)
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25
Q

urethra

A

convey urine from bladder to expulsion and carry semen

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26
Q

structure of urethra

A
  1. mucosal layer
  2. muscular layer- smooth muscle. Important in ejaculation
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27
Q

bladder stretch receptors

A

cause urination reflex
1. contraction of detrusor
2. relaxation of internal sphincter

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28
Q

external urethral sphincter (Sk Muscle)

A

flow restriction

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29
Q

enuresis

A

young children may lack unconscious control of external sphincter. Common at night. More common in ADHD children

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30
Q

incontinence

A

loss of micturition control. Caused by spinal cord damage, pregnancy, obesity, age or pathology

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31
Q

Stress Urinary Incontinence

A

inability of the urethra sphincter to properly regulate outflow of urine from bladder due to stretching of pelvic floor muscles and stretching of the connective tissue between the bladder and vigina during pregnancy

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32
Q

Urinary life span changes

A
  1. kidney cells decrease in number
  2. glomeruli numbers decrease
  3. fats deposits in tubules increase which decreases absorption
  4. renal blood flow decrease
  5. bladder loses elasosmoticticity: decrease vol.
  6. urge to urinate delayed until last moment.
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33
Q

Function of male reproductive system

A

produce and discharge of sperm, copulation

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34
Q

func of testes

A

production of sperm cells and testosterone

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35
Q

function of seminiferous tubules

A

site of production of sperm cells from puberty until death

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36
Q

sperm cell

A

func: carry male chromosome
1. head- nucleus with chromosomes
2. midpiece- mitochondria
3. tail

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37
Q

testicular cancer

A

epithelial cells of seminiferous tubules can give rise to

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38
Q

epididymis

A

nutrition and maturation of sperm
sperm can live for 2-3 weeks once mature

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39
Q

vas deferens

A

transport sperm to ejaculatory duct

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40
Q

vasectomy

A

vas deferens is surgically obstrucet to prevent sperm release. Knots, thermal scaring or clips most commonly used

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41
Q

reversal of vasectomy

A

this is a low success procedure

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42
Q

seminal gland

A
  1. secrete alkaline fluid to moderate pH of ejaculatory duct and acid from epididymis
  2. produce fructose for energy for sperm
  3. produce prostaglandine to stimulate musclular contractions in female repro tractto help move sperm
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43
Q

prostate gland

A
  1. secrete alkaline fluid to moderate pH of acid from epididymis and in vagina
  2. activates sperm
    prostatic fluid released at emission when it joins sperm from the vas deferens and seminal fluid
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44
Q

prostate hyperiasia

A

enlargment of prostate due to aging or cancer

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45
Q

bulbourethral glands

A

prduce mucus for lubrication of alkaline fluid. commonly released during arousal

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46
Q

Semen

A

the ejaculate that contains
1. sperm
2. seminal fluid
3. prostatic fluid
4. bulbourethral fluid

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47
Q

scrotum

A

enclose testes and moderate their temp (3 C) below body temp. via movements of smooth muscle

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48
Q

penis

A
  1. convey urine
  2. convey semen
  3. copulatory organ
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49
Q

corporual cavernosum

A

erectile tissue

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50
Q

corporus sponglosum

A

erectile tissue

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51
Q

penile urethral

A

carry urine and semen

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52
Q

glans penis

A

stimulation

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53
Q

prepuce

A

stimulation

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54
Q

circumcision

A

surgical removal of prepuce

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55
Q

erection

A

physical or psychological stimulation- no release- erectile chemicals produced- penile arteries dilate- penile veins constricted by pressure- erection

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56
Q

impotency

A

failure to otain an erection. Temporary impotency may result from alcohol, drugs, psychological factors (performance anxiety) permanent impotency may result from vascular or nerve disorders.

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57
Q

orgasm

A

culmination of stimulation resulting in emission

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58
Q

emission

A

release of sperm, seminal, bulbourethral and prostatic fluid into the urethra (membranous and penile) to form semen.

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59
Q

bulbourethral fluid

A

the fluid expelled from the penis during arousal is mostly bulbourethral fluid but some sperm may exit before full ejaculation

60
Q

ejaculation

A

rhythmic contractions of smooth muslce @ base of erectile columns: increases pressure forcing semen from penile urethra.

61
Q

flaccid penis

A

immediately following ejaculation, penile arteries constrict while penile veins dilate resulting in flaccid penis

62
Q

refractory period

A

subsequent erections not possible for 20 or more minutes

63
Q

urge to urinate following efaculation

A

removes residual semen from urethra decreasing chance of infection

64
Q

psychological stimulation

A

emission may occur without ejaculation resulting in temp. pain in the repro. tract. results from loss of psychological stimulation

65
Q

nocturnal emissions/ wet dreams

A

unconscious emission and efaculation. occur in adolescent males due to increased hormone levels

66
Q

hypothalamus

A

secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone

67
Q

anterior pituitary

A

GnRH stimulates release of the gonadotropins called Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ISCH) and follicle stimulation hormone (FSH)

68
Q

testes/ seminiferous tubules (interstitial cells)

A
  1. stimulated by ICSH to produce testosterone
  2. stimulated by FSH and testosterone to begin spermatogenesis
  3. as sperm counts increased, secretion of inhibin by testes inhibits: hypothalamus from secreting GnRH and ant. pit/ from secreting gonadotropins
69
Q

increased levels testosterone

A

will inhibit ant. pit. and hypothalamus from secretin actions of testosterone

70
Q

Male process

A
  1. masculinization of embryo
  2. descent of testes en utero
  3. enlargement of testes @ puberty
  4. secondary sex characteristics
71
Q

secondary sex characteristics

A
  1. increased body hair
  2. increased thyroid cartilage size
  3. deeper voice
  4. thicker skin
  5. increased muslce mass
  6. wider shoulders
  7. thicker bones
  8. increased hematocrit
  9. increased libido
  10. increased emotional sensitivity, increased desire for communication, dedication to long term relationships, and a need to “cuddle”
72
Q

testosterone levels decrease

A

as males age

73
Q

ovary

A

production of gametes (eggs)/hormones

74
Q

ovary follicles

A

cavities within ovary containing oocytes

75
Q

primary oocytes

A

diploid cells that give rise to eggs. 1 follicle

76
Q

secondary oocyte

A

haploid cells capable of being fertilized

77
Q

follicle maturation

A

at puberty FSH released by ant. pit. initiates: follicle maturation phase, luteal phase

78
Q

follicle maturation phase

A

primordial follicles- primary follicles- secondary follicles- mature follicle- ovulation of secondary oocyte via luteinizing hormone (LH)

79
Q

luteal phase

A

corpus luteum formed from ruptured mature follicle- progesterone and estrogen secreted- if pregnancy occurs CL continues to secrete preventing menstruation- without pregnancy, corpus luteum degenerates- replace by corpus albicans

80
Q

fertility drugs

A

increase the number of follicles that mature each month

81
Q

oogenesis

A
  1. each month 1 primary oocyte continues meiosis resulting in a haploid secondary oocyte and a polar body
  2. secondary haploid oocytes ovulated
  3. if fertilized, secondary oocyte completes meiosis resulting in a diploid zygote and another haploid polar body.
82
Q

teratomas

A

when ovarian cells differentiate in situ, teratomas, or dermoid cysts form. teratomas may contain hair, teeth, thyroid tissue, sebum and derivatives of all three embryonci germ layers. May become cancerous in females and almost always in males.

83
Q

uterine/ fallopian tubes

A

transport secondary oocyte/ zygote to uterus via peristalsis and ciliary actionh. Fimbriae do not contact ovary. Homologous to vas deferens

84
Q

tubal ligation

A

surgical sectioning of the oviducts prevents oocyte from being fertilized

85
Q

uterus

A

houses developing embryo

86
Q

fundus of uterus

A

apex of body

87
Q

cervix of uterus

A

neck of chamber opening into uterus

88
Q

Histology of uterus

A
  1. endometrium 2. myometrium 3. perimetrium
89
Q

endometrium

A

mucosal epithelium. Shed each month. Func: formation and maintenance of placenta

90
Q

myometrium

A

thick, smooth muslce with CT
func: physically support developing fetus, expel baby @ birth

91
Q

perimetrium

A

outer serosal layer

92
Q

endometriosis

A

occurs when endometrial cells migrate up oviducts and escape into and then implant in the abdominopelvic cavity. If fertilized eggs take the same route, results in ectopic intestinal pregnancy

93
Q

Vagina

A

copulatory organ, passage of baby

94
Q

fornix

A

thinnest protion of viginal wall

95
Q

hymen

A

thin CT and epi. membrane surrounding vaginal orfice
no func but clinically important as it may serve as indicator of virginity

96
Q

Labia majora

A

protect other ext. structures. Contain hair sebaceous and sweat glands. Homologous to scrotum

97
Q

Labia minor

A

enclose vestibule, minor arousal response

98
Q

clitoris

A

arousal. Homologous to glands and contains corpora cavernosa and glans

99
Q

vestibule

A
  1. urethra
  2. vestibular glands, hormologous to bulbourethral glands
100
Q

mammary glands

A

produce milk

101
Q

alveolar/ lactiferous glands

A

milk production

102
Q

lactiferous ducts

A

collect and trans. milk

103
Q

lactiferous sinus

A

collects milk during active nursing

104
Q

nipple

A

discharge of milk, suckling, sensory

105
Q

areola

A

discharge sebum to protect nipple, erectile tissue during arousal

106
Q

suspensory ligaments

A

support and attach breast to pectoralis major fascia and overlying dermis

107
Q

stretching period

A

as breasts enlarge due to weight gain or lactation, suspensory ligaments stretch causing sagging of the breasts. Their recoil ability is a function of age and duration of stretching period.

108
Q

breast cancer

A

results from epithelial cells of the lactiferous ducts. Leading cause of death in women from 35-45 yrs. occurs in men also

109
Q

risk factors for breast cancer

A
  1. genetics
  2. early menarche, late menopause
  3. first pregnancy after 30 yrs
  4. smoking
  5. alcohol
  6. high fat diet
  7. increase number x-rays
110
Q

dense breasts

A

breasts with numerous lactiferous glands and collagen fibers that block with rays used in mammograms

111
Q

estrogen

A

develop lactiferous ducts and breast fat

112
Q

progesterone

A

develop alveolar glands

113
Q

lactogen

A

increase breast dev. and inhibit action of prolactin

114
Q

prolactin

A

prod. of milk and inhibit gonadotropin secretion: no menstruation
cannot work in presence of lactogen: milk prod occurs post partum after placenta is shed

115
Q

colustrum

A

watery fluid with increased proteins and antibodies but decrease lactose or lipids is secreted during these 2-3 days

116
Q

oxytocin

A

contraction of uterus and myoepithelial cells lining alveolar glands: expelling milk (let-down reflex)

117
Q

Every Pregnancy and Labor Produces Oxytocin

A

Estrogen
Progesterone
Lactogen
Prolactin
Oxytocin

118
Q

post-partum uterus

A

has been stretched to 15x normal size. Oxytocin released during breast feeding causes uterine contractions which help bring uterus back to size after several months.
for this reason, baby encouraged to feed immed, post-partum to help expel placenta

119
Q

hypothalamus stimulation

A

not stimulated for 1 week: prolactin decreased and milk prod. stops, menstruation returns as prolactin no longer inhibits gonadoptropin prd.

120
Q

child weaned

A

if weaned all at once, breasts engorge with milk causing increased pain. Best to decrease feeding slowly to gradually decrease prod. of milk

121
Q

femal refractory

A

females do not experience a refractory period. Also, no gamets discharge during orgasm.

122
Q

estrogen (fem)

A

cause maturation of primary sexual charac. and 1. breast dev. 2. increase adipose in subcutaneous, thigh buttocks 3. increase skin vascularization

123
Q

progesterones (fem)

A

regulates menstrual cycle, dev. of endometrium during preg. and regulates release of gonadotropins in ant. pit.

124
Q

androgens (fem)

A

secreted by adrenal cortex and ovaries. func: growth of pubic, leg and exillary hair

androgens are converted into estrogen by adipose tissue

125
Q

decreased adipose levels

A

result in decrease estrogen levels. If estrogen levels decrease too much, menstrual flow diminished (oligomenorrhea) or stopped (amenorrhea)

common in competitive femal athletes e.g. gymansts, marathon runners

126
Q

uterine cycle

A

mentraul- proliferative phase- secretory phase

127
Q

menstrual

A

endometrial functional layer sloughs off with bleeding

128
Q

proliferative phase

A

endometrial functional layer replaced, glands, and vessels increase via follicular estrogen. Ovulation @ end of state

129
Q

secretory phase

A

vascularization and glands increase number via corpus luteum progesterone. glands secrete nutrients for unimplanted embryo. LH from CL and embryo prevents menses. Without preg. vessels deteriorate

130
Q

menopause

A

ovaries decrease response to gonadotropins (FSH, LH) after 40+ yrs: no ovulation: decrease estrogen and progesterone

131
Q

menopause results

A
  1. breasts, vagina, uterus, obiducts shrink
  2. pubic, head and exillary hair thin
  3. decrease uterine and vestubular secretions = dry vagina
  4. osteoporosis
  5. skin thins
132
Q

fertilization

A

sperm penetrates corona radiata- sperm penetrates zona pellucida- gamete membranes fuse, sperm tail drops- fertilization membrane formed- meiosis completed- nuclei fuse forming zygote

133
Q

cleavage stage (prenatal dev)

A

timing: 30 hrs- end 2nd week
stages: zygot- blastocyst
events: period of mitotic division of non-specialized cells (undetermined cells)

134
Q

embryonic stage (prenatal dev)

A

timing: end 2nd week- end week 8
stages: embryonic
events: cells determined and germ layers for early tissue layers. Placenta completed by end of week 5. Organogenesis begins

135
Q

fetal stageprino (prenatal dev)

A

timing: weeks 9-38
stages: fetal
events: organogenesis (formation of organs)

136
Q

hypotheses of Aging step 1

A
  1. genetically programmed agin hypothesis; centeral nervous system control- CNS causes decrease groth hormone, decrease metaolic rate and adrenal secretions: decrease resistance to stress and immunity.
137
Q

hypotheses of aging step 2

A

genetically programmed aging hypothesis cell controlled- cells reach limit of 50 mitotic divisions as telomeres are lost: teissues cannot be repaired

138
Q

telomeres

A

non-coding sequences of DNA at tips of schromosome that permit cellular division when present. Portions lost with each cell division

139
Q

Harmful gene hypothesis

A

harmful genes turn on as we age altering anatomy and physiology

140
Q

gene mutation hypthesis

A

mutations accumulate and hinder cells physiology

141
Q

cross linkage hypothesis

A

molecules for cross-links between regions of their structure that would not normally be linked hindering normal function

142
Q

free radical hypthesis

A

molecules with unpaired electrons react with oxygen to produce tissue damage

143
Q

cellular garbage hypothesis

A

accumulation of inert intracellular chemicals interferes with cellular physiology

144
Q

wear and tear hypothesis

A

cells can only process a preset amount of energy before wearing out

145
Q

immune deterioration hypothesis

A

lymphatic sys deteriorates with age inadequately defending against disease. Autoimmune disorders may occur

BI 122 (4 decks)

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