Unit 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Function of Lymphatic system
A
Immunity (transport WBC, pathogens to L nodes, production of antibodies, destruction of pathogens. Interstitial fluid return. Transport fat from small intestine to veins
2
Q
Lymphatic Heirarchy
A
lyphatic capillaries- L. vessels- L node- L vessel- L trunk- L duct- subclavian veins
3
Q
Function of L capillaries
A
collect interstitial fluid.
4
Q
Lymph Vessels
A
Same tunic anatomy as veins
Contain semi lunar valves
Periodic lymph nodes
5
Q
Lymph Trunks
A
Same tunic anatomy as veins
collect lymph from L vessels
6
Q
Lymph Ducts
A
same tunic anatomy as veins
collect lymph from L trunks
Both ducts dumph into subclaian veins
7
Q
How is the dermis connected to the Lymphatic system
A
any break in the dermis allows entry into the L system (many L cappilaries) e.g. bee stings, spider bites
8
Q
Lymph Glands
A
destroys pathogens
house up number dividing and mature lymphocytes and macrophates
located along L pathways
9
Q
Swollen Glands
A
Cervical nodes become enlarged with a throat or respiratory infection
10
Q
Sentinel lymph nodes
A
First node in line to drain tumor… Should therefore be the first to receive cells from metastisizng cancer.
11
Q
Elephantiasis (lymphedema)
A
Obstruction of the lymph nodes caused by nematode worms, tumors or infection and results in tissue edema and collagen fiber formation
12
Q
Lymph formation
A
Blood capillary filtration pushes plasma into interstitial spaces and then I to lymph capillaries
13
Q
Lymph flow
A
Skeletal muscle contraction in limbs
Contraction of respiratory muscles and abdominal viscera
Smooth muscle contraction in large lymph vessels and trunks
14
Q
Lymph edema
A
If interstitial fluid accumulation exceeds it’s movement into lymph capillaries
15
Q
Thymus
A
func: maturation of T lymphocytes from red marrow
Shrinks post-puberty then partially replaced by CT in elderly.
16
Q
Spleen
A
- Filter blood in same manner as nodes filter lymph.
Destroy:
old RBC via capillary channels
cellular debris via macrophages
pathogens via lymphocytes and macrophages - Hemopoesis in fetus
17
Q
Tonsils
A
Unencapsulated lymph tissue
func: gather and remove inhaled and ingested pathogens…. bacteria attacked by dense concentrations of lymphocytes.
18
Q
Tonsillitis
A
inflammation of the tonsils
19
Q
Peyer’s Patches
A
(aggregated lymphoid nodules)
located in ileum
func: gather and remove ingested pathogens
20
Q
appendix
A
func: gather and remoe ingested pathogens
21
Q
appendicitis
A
inflammation of the appendix usually resulting from bacterial infection
22
Q
two lymphatic responses to pathogens
A
nonspecific defens and specific defense
23
Q
nonspecific defense
A
defense mechanism same and regardless of type of pathogen (phgocytosis, fever, inflammation)
24
Q
specific defens
A
defense is directed at specific antigen (blood antigen, immunizations)
25
Types of Nonspecifc Defenses
(not all listed are part of lymphatic system)
1. species resistance
2. mechanical barriers
3. chemical barriers
4. fever
5. inflammation
6. phagocytosis
26
Species resistance
entire species is resistant to a group of pathogens
27
alteration of species resistance
the evolution of new pathogen variants (avian flu)
28
zoonosis
a disease that can be transmitted from non-human animals to humans (avian flu, swine flu, coid, chicken pox, hiv)
29
mechanical barries
1. integument- hard to penetrate and slough off carrying pathogens
2. mucous membranes- carries pathogens in mucous to digestive systme (nose)
30
chemical barriers
(complement proteins)
1. interferons- produced by virus infected cells that interfere with replication of virus in other cells. (increase phagocytosis and decrease tumor growth)
2. defensins- produced by granulocytes. Punch holes in bacteria membranes and cell walls
3. collectins- detect sublte differences in non self antigens then bind to surface making cells more obvious to phagocytes
4. misc chemicals- not complement proteins
31
fever
acion:
1. lymphocyte secretions cause hypothalamus to raise body temp
2. increase temp causes liver and spleen to retain Fe.
3. bacteria and fungi unable to reproduce without iron.
4.increase temp. increased phagocytosis
5. high temps denature pathogen proteins
32
inflammation
localized swelling, redness and heat
33
phagocytosis
removal of cells and debris by phagocytes
34
specific defenses
immunity- resistance to a particular pathogen or its toxins (immune response resulte of lymphoctyes and macrophages recognizing non-self/foreign antigens)
35
T cells
formed in red marrow and mature in thymus. reside in lymphatic organs
36
helper t
mobilize immune response against pathogens by activation b cells
37
memory t
t cells that docked with foreign antigen ain previous infection
func: prepare system for rapid response to reinfection
38
cytotoxic t
when activated, destroys cancerous and virus infected cells by destroying membrane
39
natural killer t
attack cancerous and virus infected cells. Do not require foreign antigen for stiumlus. Always on patrol in blood and lymph
40
B cells
formed and mature in red marrow. Reside in lymphatic organs
41
B plasma cells
prduce antibodies for defense
42
memory b
cells that did not differentiate into plasma cells during a previous infection
func: prepare systme for rapid response to reinfection
43
Immune response to foreign antigens
1. macrophages engulf foreing cell and display foreign antigens on its own membrane.
... macrophages travel to lymph nodes to activate helper t.. are a type of antigen presenting cell...
2. helper t doc with macrophage displayed foreign antigen, release cytokines that stiumlate B cells to reproduce
3.B cells produce clones that release antibodies that mimc b cell antigen receptors
4. antibodies dock with foreign antigens and trigger destruction of cell
5. some b and t cells turn into memory b and t cells and awat future infection
44
polyclonal immune response
pathogens may have multiple forms of antigens: multiple forms of antibodies may attack them
45
humoral immunity (antibody-mediated immunity)
production of antibodies to fight pathogens
46
cell-mediated immunity
destruction of pathogens by direct cellular activity
47
myeloma
cancer of plasma b cells. Mutant plasma b cells build up in the marrow producing over crowding and a decrease in RBC and they also produce an abnormal antibdy which causes renal failure. Multiple meloma manifests in bones and soft tissues
48
forms of humoral immune response
primary and secondary
49
primary humoral immune respons
activation of immune response upon initial exposer to a particular pathogen
1. 5-10 days to prduce antibodies
2. antibodies last several months
50
secondar humoral immune response
activation of immune response upon repeated exposure to the same pathogen.
1. goverened by memory t and b cells
2. 1-2 days to produce antibodies
3. produces more antibodies then primary response
51
Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
Long term resistance to pathogens due to initial natural exposure e.g. mumps, measles, chicken pox
52
Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity
Short-term immunity (month- 1 yr.) provided to fetus via transfer of maternal anitbodies in utero or in colostrum
53
Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
Long term resistance to pathogen due to artificial exposure e.g. vaccines
54
Vaccines
contain pathogen antigens and or other parts and are designed to stimulate and moderate immune response and production of antibodies and memory cells.
55
Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
Short-term (sev. weeks) immunity due to infused antibodies e.g. gammaglobulin
56
efficacy
ability to produce desired results (vaccines 80-90%)
57
Herd Immunity
vaccination of a significant portion of a population provides protection for those not vaccinated due to interruption of disease transmission between susceptible hosts
58
HIV
reproduces in Helper T cells resulting in their death and compromise of immune system
59
Antibody Actions : Attachment
Attach to antigen causing:
1. agglutination
2. Precipitation
3. Neutralization- toxic portions of antigen molecule covered: neutralized
60
Anitibody Actions: complement Enzyme Activation
complement- group of proteins in plasma and fluids that are activated by antibodies that have docked with antigens
func- destroy pathogens
61
Action of Complement Proteins
1. attract phagocytes
2. agglutination
3. rupturing membranes e.g. defensins
4. inactive viruses e.g. interferons
5. coat antibody-antigen complex: increase phagocytosis efficiency: collectins
6. inflammation
62
Newborn antibodies
newborns receive antibodies from the mother via the placenta and additional antibodies from the breast secreted colostrum
63
Allergic reactions
immune response against non-lethal substance (allergens)
64
immediate allergic reaction
anaphylaxic
rapid over-reaction to antigen/toxin including vasodilation adn bronchial constriction and inflammation response
e.g. hives, hay fever, asthma, eczema
due to overproduction of antibodies in response to antigens and subsequent release of histamines and heparin from mast cells
65
delayed allergic reaction
results from repeated exposure of skin to chemicals
e.g. latx, cosmetics, cleaners
66
complementary food
intentinally introducing peanuts, eggs, fish, at 4-6 months as complementary food to avoid allergic responses to these foods as well as asthma
67
vaginal bacteria
transfer viginal bacteria to the face and body of newborns delivered via cesarean section decreases exposure to such diseases as asthma, celiac disease and obesity
68
tissue transplants
foreign antigens initiate immune response so must find donor with most similar antigens to reduce tissue rejection and reaction and use of immuno suppressant drugs
69
isograft
tissue from identical twin
70
autograft
tissue from own body
71
allograft
tissue from other human
72
xenograft
tissue from other species
73
autoimmunity
failure to recognize self antigens and production of antibodies and cytotoxic T cells to attack own cells
74
HIV
retrovirus- uses RNA as genetic code instead of DNA
75
Aids infection Progression
1. enters cell via receptor mediated endocytosis
2. moves through cells via transcytosis and resides in macrophages
3. infection spreads to Helper T cells
4. HIV RNA transcrived into DNA, enters host nucleus and replicates
5. new viral bodies fill host cell, break through membrane killing host cell
6. HIVe Spreads to new Helper T cells: decrease population: preventing B cell activation and antibody production
7. pathogens invade and are unchallenged by a antibody mediated response resulting in disease progression
76
HIV Mutation
viruses and bacteria mutate rapidly since they do not contain paired chromosomes
1. mutants evolve within days of infection
2. mutants able to invade cytotoxic t cells
3. 1-5 billion HIV particles produced a day in patient with AIDS: increase number of mutation
77
Life Span Changes (Lymphatic)
1. thymus gland shrinks post adolescence
2. T and B cell number remain almost the same
3. immune reaction time decrease
4. autoimmunity events increase
78
Respiratory System Function
1. deliver oxygen to tissues (for aerobic cellular respiration)
2. remove carbon dioxide from tissues
3. regulatingof blood pH
4. expel toxins
5. produce sounds
6. thermoregulation
79
Nose and nasal cavity (URT) Function
1.entrance for air
2. filter air via hairs
3. moisten and warms incoming air
3. dehumidifies exhaled air
4. trap particles in mucus: decrease resp infections
5.olfactory receptors
80
smokers cough
smoking slows movement of cilia, eventually paralyzing and destroying them: mucus expelled via smokers cough
smoking increase mucus production: mucus removal problems increase and smokers cough increases
81
Nose and nasal cavity Components
1. ciliated pseudostratiified columnar cells with increase number of goblet cells
2. septum- fleshy partition with cartilage between nares, increase surface area of mucous membranes
3. conchae- increase surface area of mucous membranes
82
deviated septum
septum is deviated to one side of nasalpassage air flow is restricted and voice is altered
83
Sinuses (URT)
empty into nasal cavity
1. increase surface area of mucous membranes
2. resonance chamber
84
sinustis
inflammation of the sinus membranes resulting in pressure and headache
85
pharynx (URT)
1. common passageway for air, food and water
2. production of sound
86
larynx (LRT)
1. produce sounds via vocal cords
2. prevent entrance of food and water into trachea (aspiration) via epiglottis
87
Larynx cartilages
maintain larynx lumen
88
larynx- epiglottis
prevents aspiration, swallowing raises larynx against tongue base closing epiglottis
89
epiglottitis
inflammation of epiglottis that can result in asphyxiation- need tracheostomy will re establish airway
90
vocal folds
false- close during swallowing to prevent aspiration, when relaxed form opening called glottis
true- vibrate to produce sound
91
trachea
1. conduct air to and from lungs
2. trap particles in mucus
3. ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelim with higher nubmer goblet cells to move particles up to phaynx
92
tracheal cartilage
maintain lumen of trachea
93
bronchial tree
conduct air to and from lungs
94
bronchus
increasingly smaller air passageways branching from trachea. Tracheal rings replaced by cartilage plates until smallest bronchioles when replaced by smooth muscle and increase number elastic fibers
95
bronchitis
inflimmation of bronchioles caused by pathogens or allergens
96
Cystic fibrosis
genetic disease results in overproduction of sticky thick mucus that accumulates in the smaller bronchioles inviting bacterial infection
97
bronchial asthma
reaction to allergens causing bronchioconstrictions in lower tree. Results in ventilation difficulty especially for exhaling since it is a passive process
98
aveolar ducts
interface between bronchi and alveolar sacs
99
aveolar sacs
multi lobed expansions of alveolar ducts
100
aveolus
individual lobed expansions of the sacs. Simple squamous epithelium. Actual site of gas exchange via the repiratory membrane
101
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
any condition that obstructs air flow into/out of the alvoli is
e.g. emphysema, chronic bronchitis (barreled chest)
102
pneumonia
accumulation of fluid and wbc in the alveoli as a result of increased permeability of the resp membrane due to pathology. Result in decreased gas exchange
103
Lungs
1. bronchial tree
2. blood vessels
3. lymphatic vessels
4. nerves
5. pleural membranes- both serous membranes. Parietal and visceral, potentail space = pleural cavity
104
pneumothorax
air enters pleural space (due to lung or chest wall puncture) the lung is compressed with each breath
105
tuberculosis
bacterial lung infection that results in fibrous tubercles being produced around bacteria. as fibers increase gas exchange decreases
106
Effects of smoking on resp sys
1. paralyze cilia
2. increase mucus production
3. smokers cough
4. bronchioles thicken, lose elasticity: cannont absorb increase pressure of coughing: pressure transferred to alveoli
5. increase pressure from coughing ruptures respiratory membranes resulting in emphysema
6. alveoli capillary networks decrease
7. bronchial epithelial cells may become cancerous and metastasize
8. chronic resp irritation increse number respiratory infections
9. olfaction and gustation ability decrease
107
Oxygen transport
1. bond to hemoglobin
2. released from hemoglobin to tissues due to decrease pressure oxygen in tissues. Not all oxygen is released
3. carbon dioxide released from tissuesto blod due to increased pressure carbon dioxide in tissues
108
CO2 transport
1. hemoglobin
2. plasma- forms H2CO3
3. bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
109
altitude sickness
results when the atmospheric pressure of oxygen decreases= flistration of O2 into blood decreases causing hypoxia, headaches, disorientation and death
110
atmospheric composition
78% N
21% O2
misc gases
111
Ventilation cycle
1, stimulus from phrenic and costal nerves
2. diaphragm contracts and moves down
3. external intercostals contract and raise chest and the parietal and visceral pleura causing lungs to expand
4. pulmonary pressure decrease , air flows into lungs
5. phrenic and costal nerves stops stimulation, diaphragm and external intercostals relax, internal intercostals contract
6. recoil of bronchioles, lungs and abdominal organs increase pulmonary pressure forcing air out
112
coughing
glottis closed prior to cough, removes irritants from lower rep tract
113
sneeze
uvula directs air through nasals, removes irritant from upper reps tract
114
laughing/crying
breath followed by series of rapid expierations
expresses emotion
115
hiccups
spasm of diaphragm
116
yawning
occasional deep breath triggered by dicreased O2????
117
speech
air forced through larynx
produce sound
118
control of breathing
respiratory center in pons and medulla controls breathing with additional signals from peripheral chemoreceptors
119
Blood pH Homeostasis
1. CO2 + H2O= H2CO3 results lower blood pH
2. H2CO3=H+ + HCO3-
H+ binds with hemoglobin to work as a pH buffer: does not lower blood pH
120
stimulus for breathing
1. increase blood CO2 and decrease pH- chemosensitive arease of respiratory center in medulla stimulated: increase ventilation
2. decrease blood oxygen- chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies stimulated: increase ventilation
3. stretch receptors stimulated: decrease ventilation to prevent tissue tearing
121
Hyperventilation
decrease carbon dioxide, increases pH causing vasoconstriction of cerebral arterioles: hypoxia and fainting
122
life span changes (resp)
1. # cilia decrease
2. mucus thickens
3. macrophages decrease efficiency
4. sternal and intercostal cartilages thicken
5.bronchiles loose elasticity and increase fibers
6. # alveoli decrease
7. alveoli increase fibers decrease elasticity
