Unit 3: Sustainability and Inderdependance Flashcards
Feeding the increasing population requires…
A sufficient and sustainable supply of food
Food production must be ___
Sustainable
Why must food production be sustainable
So it does not degrade the natural resources on which agriculture depends
How to make sure food production does not degrade the natural resources on which agriculture depends
Make it sustainable
Food security
The ability of human populations to access food of sufficient quality and quantity
The ability of human populations to access food of sufficient quality and quantity
Food security
3 things food must be for food security
Sufficient food must be available at all times
Food is sufficiently nutrients and varied to provide a balanced diet
People have economic means to obtain the available food
What does agricultural production depend on
Factors that control plant growth
How many edible plant species are there
75000
What is food production dependent on
Photosynthesis
Main crops species
Maize
Rice
Potato
Legumes
Roots
things to improve plant growth
- Adding minerals (fertiliser) or water (irrigation systems) to remove factors that may be limiting plant growth
- Replacing existing strains of crops with a higher yield cultivar (cultured variety)
- Protecting crops from pests (eg insects), diseases (eg. Fungi), and competition (from weeds) by using pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides
- Developing pest-resistant crop plants
- Adding minerals (fertiliser) or water (irrigation systems) to remove factors that may be limiting plant growth
- Replacing existing strains of crops with a higher yield cultivar (cultured variety)
- Protecting crops from pests (eg insects), diseases (eg. Fungi), and competition (from weeds) by using pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides
- Developing pest-resistant crop plants
Improving plant growth
Breeders seek to develop crops with……
Higher nutritional values
Resistance to pests and disease
Physical characteristics suited to rearing and harvesting
Plants that can thrive in particular environmental conditions
Ways energy is lost from food chains
Undigested food and waste
Movement
Maintaining body temperature
What is lost through..
Undigested food and waste
Movement
Maintaining body temperature
Energy
Only ____ of energy is incorporated into body tissues
10%
As you move along a food chain, what happens
Energy is lost between tropic levels
When is energy is lost between tropic levels
As you move along a good chain
Livestock produce ___ food per unit area than plants
Less
Why do livestock produce less food than plants
Because of loss of energy
Shorter food chains have _______ loss of energy
Much less
Livestock production advantage
Often possible in habitants unsuitable for growing crops
Light
A form of electromagnetic radiation which travels in waves
A form of electromagnetic radiation which travels in waves
Light
Wavelength
Distance between two crests
Distance between two crests
Wavelength
What are wavelengths measured in
nm
Each colour of light has a different …..
Wavelength
What happens to white light (sunlight) hitting a leaf
either..
Reflected
Or
Transmitted
Leaves contain several…
Coloured pigments which chlorophyll is the most important
What do leaf pigments do
Absorb light energy. Each pigment absorbs a different wavelength of light
Absorption spectra
Shows the absorption of light of each wavelength by each pigment
Action spectrum
Shows the rate of photosynthesis at each light wavelength
Shows the absorption of light of each wavelength by each pigment
Absorption spectra
Shows the rate of photosynthesis at each light wavelength
Action spectrum
What do xanthopyll and carotene (carotenoids) do
Extend the range of light wavelengths absorbed
What extend the range of light wavelengths absorbed
Carotenoids
What are known as accessory pigments
Carotenoids
Why are carotenoids known as accessory pigments
As they pass the energy they capture to chlorophyll for photosynthesis
Where are photosynthetic pigments contained
Grana
What are contained in the grana
Photosynthetic pigments
What happens in the grana
Absorption of light energy
Where does absorption of light energy happen
In grana
Where does carbon fixation happen
In stroma
What happens in stroma
Carbon fixation
What happens when light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll a
It’s electrons become excited
What causes chlorophyll a’s electrons to become excited
When light energy is absorbed
What happens to the excited electrons
They are captured by the primary electron acceptor
When are excited electrons captured by the primary electron acceptor
After they become excited
What happens after the electrons are captured by the primary electron acceptor
The electrons are transferred along the electron transport chain releasing energy
What is the energy from the excited electrons used for
Used by ATP synthase to generate ATP
Some energy also used in photolysis
Photolysis
Splitting water into oxygen (which is released) and hydrogen which is transferred to coenzyme NAD to make NADH
Splitting water into oxygen (which is released) and hydrogen which is transferred to coenzyme NAD to make NADH
Photolysis
Stage 1 of photolysis
Absorbed light energy excited electrons in the pigment molecule
Stage 2 of photolysis
Transfer of the electrons through the ETCs releases energy to generate ATP by ATP synthase
Stage 3 of photolysis
Energy is split into oxygen which is evolved
And
Hydrogen ions that is transferred to coenzyme NADP
3 states of photolysis
Absorbed light energy excited electrons in the pigment molecule
Transfer of the electrons through the ETCs releases energy to generate ATP by ATP synthase
Energy is split into oxygen which is evolved
And
Hydrogen ions that is transferred to coenzyme NADP
What from the electron transport chains are used in the Calvin cycle
ATP
And
NADPH
When does Calvin cycle happen
At the end of the first stage of photosynthesis
First stage of photosynthesis
Photolysis / light dependant stage
Second stage of photosynthesis
Calvin cycld
Where does the Calvin cycle take place
Stroma
Stage 1 of Calvin cycle
Carbon dioxide enters the cycle and attaches to RuBP.
This reaction is controlled by the enzyme RuBisCO
RuBP full name
Ribulose biphosphate
RuBisCO full name
Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase / oxygenanase
Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase / oxygenanase
RuBisCO
Ribulose biphosphate
RuBP
Stage 2 of Calvin cycle
the CO2 and RuBP combine to make 3PG
3PG
3-phosphoglycerate
Stage 3 of Calvin cycle
3PG combines with H from NADPH and is phosphorylated by the adddition of inorganic phosphate from ATP which supplies the energy
Stage 4 of Calvin cycle
This produced G3P
G3P
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Stage 5 of Calvin cycle
Some G3P is used to regenerate RuBP (to continue the process)l the remainder is used for the synthesis of glucose
Five stages of Calvin cycle
Carbon dioxide enters the Cycle and attaches to RuBP. This reaction is controlled by the enzyme RuBisCO
the CO2 and RuBP combine to make 3PG
3PG combines with H to form NADPH and is phosphorylated by the adddition of inorganic phosphate from ATP which supplies the energy
This produced G3P
Some G3P is used to regenerate RuBP (to continue the process)l the remainder is used for the synthesis of glucose
How does the enzyme RuBisCO fix carbon dioxide
By attaching it to RuBP
What is 3PG phosphorylated by
ATP
What does 3PG combine with
Hydrogen from NADPH to form G3P
What is G3P used for
To regenerate RuBP and for the synthesis of glucose
The glucose formed in photosynthesis is used for…
Respiration
Starch
Cellulose
Biosynthetic pathways
- fats
- proteins
- DNA
Cellulose
Structural carbohydrate
Why does plant and animal breeding happen
To improve characteristics to help support sustainable food production
What characteristics do breeders want
Higher crop yields
Higher nutritional values
Pest and disease resistance
Ability to thrive in specific conditions
Purpose of plant field trials
Compare the performance of different plants
To evaluate GM crops
What factors must be considered when designing a plant field trial
Selection of treatments to be used (allows for valid comparisons)
Number of replicates to be included (to take into account the variability within the sample)
Randomisation of treatments (to eliminate bias when measuring treatment effects)
selection of treatments for field trials
For each equal sized crops only one variable should be altered
All other variables should remain constant to ensure a valid comparison can be made
Number of replicates for plant trials
if only one treatment of each condition of fertiliser were carried out, the results would be unreliable
Differences in each plot and differences in how the experiment was carried out would occur aka experimental error
To minimise experimental error and take into account of variability of results then a minimum of three replicates must be set up
Randomisation of treatments in plant trials
If plots in a field were created in an orderly fashion then bias could exist
Allocating the plot treatments randomly eliminates bias
Inbreeding
The fusion of two gametes from close relatives
The fusion of two gametes from close relatives
Inbreeding
inbreeding practically
Selected related plants or animals are bred for several generations until the population breeds true to the described type due to the elimination of heterozygotes
Inbreeding is naturally occurring in some species of self pollinating plants
First effect of inbreeding
An increase in the frequency of individuals who are homozygous for recessive deleterious alleles
The individuals will do less well at surviving to reproduce
Second effect of inbreeding
Inbreeding depression
What does continuous inbreeding lead to
A loss of heterozygosity and increase in frequency of individuals who are homozygous for recessive deleterious alleles
What causes a loss of heterozygosity and increase in frequency of individuals who are homozygous for recessive deleterious alleles
Inbreeding
What happens if a natural out breeder is forced to inbreed
Inbreeding depression can occur
How does inbreeding depression occur
Accumulation of homozygous recessive alleles which can be deleterious.
Inbreeding results in decline of size, vigour, fertility, and yield across generations
What is an F1 hybrid
An individual resulting from a cross between two genetically dissimilar parents
An individual resulting from a cross between two genetically dissimilar parents
F1 hybrid
Hybrids breeding
Breeders will cross members of one variety of a species that have a desired characteristics with members of another variety that has another desired characteristic
Aim of hybrids
To produce a hybrid that has both desired characteristics
Why does crossbreeding happen
Problems associated with inbreeding
How are new alleles introduced for crossbreeding
By crossing a cultivar or breed with an individual with a different desired genotype
How are f1 hybrids produced
By crossing two inbred lines, create a relatively uniform heterozygous crop
Advantage of F1 hybrids
Display increased vigour and yield.
Poorer recessive genes are masked by superior dominant ones
Qualities of plants with increased vigour
May have increased disease resistance or increased growth rate
Why are F1 hybrids not bred together
As F2 generations show too much variation
What can variation be
Continuous
Or
Discrete
What are discrete variation controlled by
Alleles of a single gene
What can alleles be
Dominant or recessive
What can variation in a population be
Discrete
Or
Continuous
Two ways of genetic technology
Genetic sequencing
Genetic transformation
Ways to enhance plants and animals
Selective breeding
Genetic technology
What can genetic sequencing be used for
To identify organisms that possess particular alleles for a desired characteristics
This animal can then be selected for use in a breeding programme
What can be used to…
To identify organisms that possess particular alleles for a desired characteristics
This animal can then be selected for use in a breeding programme
Genetic sequencing
Genetic transformation definition
The transfer of genetic info from one organisms to other
The transfer of genetic info from one organisms to other
Genetic transformation
What can genetic transformation be used for
To enhance a crop species that can then be used in a breeding programme
What can be used to enhance a crop species that can then be used in a breeding programme
Genetic transformation
Genetic transformation stages
- Single gene for desirable characteristics selected
- Gene inserted into genome of crop plants
- Genetically modified plants with improved characteristics produced
- Single gene for desirable characteristics selected
- Gene inserted into genome of crop plants
- Genetically modified plants with improved characteristics produced
Stages of genetic transformation
Example of recombinant DNA technology in plant breeding
Bt toxin gene
> pest resistance
Glyphosate resistance gene
> herbicide tolerance
Bt toxin gene
> pest resistance
Glyphosate resistance gene
> herbicide tolerance
Example of recombinant DNA technology in plants
Balanced community
In a natural ecosystem, there is a balance between the producers and consumers
What does diversity and genetic variety in a species allow for
Resilience to weeds pests and fungal infections
Only one species of crop plant lives in the area
Members of species are often genetically identical
Monoculture
Monoculture
Only one species of crop plant lives in the area
Members of species are often genetically identical
What has to be done with a monoculture
Tightly control weeds, pests, and fungal infections to ensure greatest wild of crop
What do weeds compete with
Crop plants
What damage crop plants
Pests and diseases
What do pressure and diseases do to crop plants
Damage them
What reduces productivity in crop plants
Weeds
Pests
Diseases
Effects of
Weeds
Pests
Diseases
On plant crops
Reduce productivity
Annual weeds
Plants that complete their entire life cycle (from seed to death) in one year
Plants that complete their entire life cycle (from seed to death) in one year
Annual plants
4 values of annual plants
High seed output
Rapid growth
Seeds viable for long periods of time
Short life cycle
High seed output
Rapid growth
Seeds viable for long periods of time
Short life cycle
Annual plants properties
Perennial weeds
Plants that live for several years, becoming dormant in winter and growing again in spring
The weeds are already established in the habitat
Plants that live for several years, becoming dormant in winter and growing again in spring
The weeds are already established in the habitat
Perennial weeds
Properties of perennial weeds
Reproduce vegetatively (asexually)
Have storage organs to provide food when conditions are poor
Reproduce vegetatively (asexually)
Have storage organs to provide food when conditions are poor
Perennial weeds
Inverterbrae pests
Fall into 3 groups
Molluscs
Rematode worms
Insects
Fall into 3 groups
Molluscs
Rematode worms
Insects
Invertebrate pests
Effects of invertebrate pests
Destroy the leaves, reducing the plants ability to carry out photosynthesis & produce sugar
Some pests may be a vector for other diseases
Ultimate effect of invertebrate Perrys
Reduce vigour and yield
Wheat are plant diseases caused by
Pathogens
What can plant disease pathogens be
Bacteria
Fungi
Viruses
What can plant disease pathogens be spread through
Air
Soil
Inveterate vectors
What can spread through
Air
Soil
Inveterate vectors
Pathogens of plant disease
What can plant diseases affect
The yeild of the crop
Economic affect of plant disease
Reduced yield
Make crops less marketable if they are blemished or degrade too quickly in storage
Reduced yield
Make crops less marketable if they are blemished or degrade too quickly in storage
Economic consequences of plant diseases
By what means can weeds, pests, and diseases be controlled
Chemical
Cultural
Cultural methods of crop protecting
Ploughing
Weeding
Crop rotation
Ploughing
Weeding
Crop rotation
Cultural means of control
Ploughing
Turning the top 20cm of soil every time a field is ploughed.
Many weeds are buried deep enough for them to die and decompose
Turning the top 20cm of soil every time a field is ploughed.
Many weeds are buried deep enough for them to die and decompose
Ploughing
Weeding
Removal of weeds should be done early in the life of the crop to reduce competition
Removal of weeds should be done early in the life of the crop to reduce competition
Weeding
Crop rotation
A series of different crops are grown one after the other on the same piece of ground - over 4 growing seasons
A series of different crops are grown one after the other on the same piece of ground - over 4 growing seasons
Crop rotation
Chemical means of crop protection
Herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides can be used to control pests when cultural means fail
Herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides can be used to control pests when cultural means fail
Chemical means of crop protection
Pesticides include
Herbicide - kill weeds
Fungicide- control fungal diseases
Insecticide- kill insect pests
Molluscides - kill mollusc pests
Nematocide - kill nematodes
Herbicide - kill weeds
Fungicide- control fungal diseases
Insecticide- kill insect pests
Molluscides - kill mollusc pests
Nematocide - kill nematodes
Pesticides
What can herbicide be
Selective
Or
Systemic
What can be..
Selective
Or
Systemic
Herbicides
Selective herbicides
Mimic the action of plant growth hormones
Speeds up the metabolism of broad leafed plants to the extent that they use up their food reserves and die
Narrow leafed plants eg. Cereal crops aren’t affected
Mimic the action of plant growth hormones
Speeds up the metabolism of broad leafed plants to the extent that they use up their food reserves and die
Narrow leafed plants eg. Cereal crops aren’t affected
Selective herbicide
Systemic herbicide
Absorbed by the plant + quickly transported to all areas of the plant
spreads through the vascular system to prevent regrowth
lethal effect on roots and leaves of plant
Absorbed by the plant + quickly transported to all areas of the plant
spreads through the vascular system to prevent regrowth
lethal effect on roots and leaves of plant
Systemic herbicide
What are pesticides essential for
Protecting crops
Systemic pesticides effect on invertebrates
Only kill when invertebrate ingest plant material through feeding
Invertebrate ingests poisonous chemical
Only kill when invertebrate ingest plant material through feeding
Invertebrate ingests poisonous chemical
Systemic pesticides
Fungicide
Kill fungal parasites which causes diseases in crop plants
Protective applications of fungicide based on disease forecast are often more effective than treating a diseased crop
Kill fungal parasites which causes diseases in crop plants
Protective applications of fungicide based on disease forecast are often more effective than treating a diseased crop
Fungicide
Problems with pesticides
Chemicals may be toxic to non target animal species
Persistence in the environment
Bioaccumulation pope magnification in food chains
Producing resistance populations of pests
Chemicals may be toxic to non target animal species
Persistence in the environment
Bioaccumulation pope magnification in food chains
Producing resistance populations of pests
Problems with pesticides
Bioaccumulation
Many pesticides have been found to persist in the environment
Chemical found at low concentration in the environment but can accumulate within an organisms tissues over time
Many pesticides have been found to persist in the environment
Chemical found at low concentration in the environment but can accumulate within an organisms tissues over time
Bioaccumulation
Bio magnification
Organisms living in an environment with pesticides present can accidentally ingest them
The chemicals increase in concentration going up the food chain/trophic levels
Organisms living in an environment with pesticides present can accidentally ingest them
The chemicals increase in concentration going up the food chain/trophic levels
Biomagnification
Biological control
Control of pests population by introducing a natural enemy
Control of pests population by introducing a natural enemy
Biological control
3 methods of biological control
Predator
Parasite
Pathogen
Negatives of biological control
Works best in closed systems such as greenhouses so that the control agent cannot escape into wider environment
Control organisms may become invasive to a species, parasite, prey or be a pathogen of another species
If escape occurs into an environment which is free from predators, parasites, and diseases then their numbers could increase rapidly and infect the local population - invasive species
Works best in closed systems such as greenhouses so that the control agent cannot escape into wider environment
Control organisms may become invasive to a species, parasite, prey or be a pathogen of another species
If escape occurs into an environment which is free from predators, parasites, and diseases then their numbers could increase rapidly and infect the local population - invasive species
Risks of biological control
Integrated pest management
Used a combo of chemical biological and cultural methods to improve yeild
Used a combo of chemical biological and cultural methods to improve yeild
Integrated pest management
IPM aim
To reduce chemical use and only use chemicals which do not persist and reduce pets to levels which allow biological control methods to take over
To reduce chemical use and only use chemicals which do not persist and reduce pets to levels which allow biological control methods to take over
IPM aim
Animal welfare
An animals state of well-being is regarded as acceptable only if the animal is able to…
Behave in a natural way
Live free from disease
Grow vigorously
An animals state of well-being is regarded as acceptable only if the animal is able to…
Behave in a natural way
Live free from disease
Grow vigorously
Animal welfare
What does providing livestock with good environmental conditions to live involves
Costs
Benefits
Ethics
Intensive farming is _____ ethical than free range farming
Less
Why is intensive farming less ethical
Due to poorer animal welfare
Free range farming is ____ expensive
More
Why is free range farming more expensive
Requires more land
More labour intensive
Advantages of free range farming
Products sold at higher price
Animals have better quality of life
Products sold at higher price
Animals have better quality of life
Advantages of free range
Benefits of intensive farming
More cost effective
Higher profits
Behavioural indicators of poor animal welfare
Stereotypy
Misdirected behaviour
Failure in sexual/parental behaviour
Altered activity levels
Stereotypy
Misdirected behaviour
Failure in sexual/parental behaviour
Altered activity levels
Behavioural indicators of poor welfare
Stereotypy
Repetitive movement, often lacking variation
Appears to lack purpose
Repetitive movement, often lacking variation
Appears to lack purpose
Stereotypy
When is Stereotypy mostly seen
Animals in bare, confined quarters
Misdirected behaviour
Normal behaviour is directed inappropriately
Or be misdirected towards surroundings
Normal behaviour is directed inappropriately
Or be misdirected towards surroundings
Misdirected behaviour
Example of misdirected behaviour
Animals may mutilate themselves by over grooming
Failure of sexual /parental behaviour
Failure of animals to breed successfully
Offspring rejected
Failure of animals to breed successfully
Offspring rejected
Failure of sexual / parental behaviour
Apathy
Very low levels of activity
Very low levels of activity
Apathy
Very high levels of activity
Hysteria
Hysteria
Very high levels of activity
Symbiosis
A relationship between organisms of two different species that live in direct contact with one another
A relationship between organisms of two different species that live in direct contact with one another
Symbiosis
Co evolution
Intimate relationships that have evolved over millions of years
Intimate relationships that have evolved over millions of years
Co evolution
Two types of symbiotic relationships
Parasitic
Mutualism
Parasitism
Mutualism
Two types of symbiotic relationships
Parasitism
Dependence as the parasite is always reliant on the host
Dependence as the parasite is always reliant on the host
Parasitism
Mutualism
Interdependence as the two partners are mutually dependant upon one another
Interdependence as the two partners are mutually dependant upon one another
Mutualism
Who benefits in parasitism
The parasite
What does the parasite get in parasitism
Energy or nutrients from the host
Host in parasitism
Host is harmed, or at least loses energy
Parasite dependence
Parasites have a limited metabolism and cannot survive out of contact with the host
Ways of transmission of parasites
Direct contact
Release of resistant stages
Use of vector
Direct contact
Release of resistant stages
Use of vector
Ways of transmission of parasites
Direct contact
Passed from person to person by physical contact
Passed from person to person by physical contact
Direct contact
Release of resistant stages
Able to survive adverse environmental conditions until they come into contact with a new host
Able to survive adverse environmental conditions until they come into contact with a new host
Release of resistant stages
Use of vector
Carry disease
Two types of parasitic life cycles
Direct life cycle
Indirect life
Direct lifecycle
Indirect cycle
Two types of parasitic life cycles
Direct life cycle
Eggs are shed and passed to a new member of the host species
Eggs are shed and passed to a new member of the host species
Direct life cycle
Indirect life cycle
In addition to using a primary host as the site for sexual reproduction,
The parasite employs a secondary host species in its life cycle
In addition to using a primary host as the site for sexual reproduction,
The parasite employs a secondary host species in its life cycle
Indirect life cycle
What does a secondary host allow
Immature parasites to complete their lifecycle
What allows immature parasites to complete their lifecycle
Secondary host
Who benefits in mutualism
Both organisms
Two types of mutualism
Both organisms provide a service
Or
One organism provides a service one provides a resource
4 advantages of living in a social group
Easier to catch food
Protection
Help raising young
Finding mates
Easier to catch food
Protection
Help raising young
Finding mates
Advantages of living in a social group
What is social hierarchy
A system where members of a social group are organised into a graded order of rank
A system where members of a social group are organised into a graded order of rank
Social hierarchy
What do dominant individuals do in social hierarchy
Carry out ritualistic (threat) displays
Who carry out ritualistic (threat) displays
Dominant individuals in social hierarchies
What do subordinate animals do in social hierarchy
Appeasement behaviour to reduce conflict
Who carry out appeasent behaviour to reduce conflict
Subordinate animals
Reason for alliances
To increase social status within group
How to increase social status within group
Alliances
Dominant behaviours in wolves
Head raised
Ears raised
Teeth bared
Eyes staring
Head raised
Ears raised
Teeth bared
Eyes staring
Dominant behaviours in wolves
Submissive behaviour in wolves
Teeth covered
Ears lowered
Head lowered
Teeth covered
Ears lowered
Head lowered
Submissive behaviour
What do social hierarchies improve
A species survival
3 advantages of social hierarchy
Agression between members is ritualised - so conflict and injury is reduced
Experience leadership gaurenteed
Increased chance of dominant genes being passed on
Agression between members is ritualised - so conflict and injury is reduced
Experience leadership gaurenteed
Increased chance of dominant genes being passed on
Advantages of social hierarchies
Co op hunting
Predatory animals often hunt together as groups to increase their hunting success
Predatory animals often hunt together as groups to increase their hunting success
Coop hunting
Advantages of coop hunting
Less emerging is used power individual
Increased chance of success
Emailed larger power to be caught
Gain more food than foraging alone
Less emerging is used power individual
Increased chance of success
Emailed larger power to be caught
Gain more food than foraging alone
Advantages of coop hunting
Safety in numbers
By staying together as a large group, many animals are protected from predators
Advantages of large formations of animals
Many eyes to look out for predators
Some individuals can keep a watch and others can forage for food
Special formations to protect young
Many eyes to look out for predators
Some individuals can keep a watch and others can forage for food
Special formations to protect young
Advantages of large formations of animals
Musk ox
Form defensive ring with young at centre
Altruism
Behaviour that is unselfish and harms the donor but benefits the recipient
Behaviour that is unselfish and harms the donor but benefits the recipient
Altruism
Example of altruism
One meerkat standing grind while others eat
Types of altruism
Reciprocal altruism
Kin selection
Reciprocal altruism
One animal helping another in the prospect of the favour being returned
The roles of donor and recipient later reverse
One animal helping another in the prospect of the favour being returned
The roles of donor and recipient later reverse
Reciprocal altruism
Example of reciprocal altruism
Grooming to remind parasites in apes
kin selection
Animals being related
Donor will benefit as there is an increased chance of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or future offspring (their relatives reproduce)
Animals being related
Donor will benefit as there is an increased chance of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or future offspring (their relatives reproduce)
Kin selection
Social insects
Complex social behaviour with only some individuals contributing reproductively
Most members of a been colony are ____
Workers
Queen in colony
Lays eggs
Worker in colony
Defend hive
Collect pollen
Preform wiggle dance
Drone in colony
Mate with queen
Why do sterile workers raise relatives
To increase survival of shared genes
Why do some animals have a long period of parental care
Opportunity to learn complex social behaviour
Why are complex social behaviours important
Essential for survival
Examples of complex social behaviour
Foraging
Hunting
Recognising danger
Complex social behaviours support…
Social hierarchy to reduce conflict
And
Group behaviour (alliances to increase social status
How do primates reduce unnecessary conflict
Ritualistic displays and appeasement behavioue
Ritualistic behaviour
Threat
Makes them look larger and adopt a certain posture
Threat
Makes them look larger and adopt a certain posture
Ritualistic behaviour
Appeasement behaviour
Submissive displays to make you look smaller, flatter, motionless, and unthreatening
Submissive displays to make you look smaller, flatter, motionless, and unthreatening
Appeasement behaviour
Social behaviours
Grooming
Facial expression
Body posture
Sexual presentation
Grooming
Facial expression
Body posture
Sexual presentation
Social behaviour
Grooming
Chimpanzees and other primates employ grooming as an effective way of reducing tension within the group.
One animal picks plant material, fleas and scabs from the fur of another.
This often takes the form of reciprocal altruism
It also cements relationships and can being about reconciliation after a fight
Chimpanzees and other primates employ grooming as an effective way of reducing tension within the group.
One animal picks plant material, fleas and scabs from the fur of another.
This often takes the form of reciprocal altruism
It also cements relationships and can being about reconciliation after a fight
Grooming
Facial expression in primates
Closed eyes
= submissive
Open and closed lips rapidly
= friendly and submissive
Grinning with teeth employed
= submissive
Closed eyes
= submissive
Open and closed lips rapidly
= friendly and submissive
Grinning with teeth employed
= submissive
Facial expression in primates
Body posture
Soft grunting notes
Quick bows
Lower themselves
= submissive
Soft grunting notes
Quick bows
Lower themselves
= submissive
Body posture in primates
Sexual presentation
Female chimpanzees offer their rumps to appease dominant male
The male will sniff and become aroused
Alternative to aggressive behaviour
Female chimpanzees offer their rumps to appease dominant male
The male will sniff and become aroused
Alternative to aggressive behaviour
Sexual presentation in primates
Purpose of alliances
Increased social status
How to increase social status
Alliances
Is an individuals position fixed in a social hierarchy
No
Biodiversity
The total variation that exists among all living things on earth
The total variation that exists among all living things on earth
Biodiversity
Measurable components of biodiversity
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Measurable components of biodiversity
What does genetic diversity result from
the genetic variation shown by the number and frequency of all the genes possessed by its members
What happens to genetic variation if one population of a species dies out
The species may have lost some of its genetic diversity
Limiting its ability to adapt to changing conditions
2 factors taken into account when measuring species diversity
Richness of a species
Relative abundance of each species
How many factors are taken into account when measuring species diversity
2
Richness of a species
No. Of different species in the ecosystem
No. Of different species in the ecosystem
Richness of a species
Relative abundance of each species
Proportion of each species in the ecosystem
Proportion of each species in the ecosystem
Relative abundance of each species
A community with a dominant species has ____ species diversity than one with the same species richness but no dominant species
Lower
A community with a _____ species has lower species diversity than one with the same species richness but no dominant species
Dominant
Ecosystem diversity
The no of distinct ecosystems within a defined area
The no of distinct ecosystems within a defined area
Ecosystem diversity
What do humans do to satisfy the demands of the ever increasing population
Chop down, plough up, dam, and pollute natural habitats
Why do humans chop down, plough up, dam, and pollute natural habitats
to satisfy the demands of the ever increasing population
What is human degredation causing
The rate of species extension to be much higher than the natural background rate
What is causing the rate of species extension to be much higher than the natural background rate
Human degregation
Overexploitation
To remove and use up indivuduals at a rate that exceeds the species max rate of reproduction
Eg overfishing
To remove and use up indivuduals at a rate that exceeds the species max rate of reproduction
Eg overfishing
Overexploitation
What does over exploitation cause
Decrease in genetic diversity
Effects of over exploitation on populations
Can be reduced but may still recover
Some species genetic diversity
Low but still remain stable
How to prevent over exploitation
Allowing time for depleted stocks to recover
Catch quotas
Allowing time for depleted stocks to recover
Catch quotas
How to prevent overexpoitation
Natural disaster effect on population
Serious consequences
If surviving population is very small, it may have lost much of the genetic variation needed to adapt to further environmental change
What causes if surviving population is very small, it may have lost much of the genetic variation needed to adapt to further environmental change
Bottleneck effect
What does loss of genetic variety produce
Population whose members are so similar that reproduction among them is genetically equivalent to inbreeding
What causes population whose members are so similar that reproduction among them is genetically equivalent to inbreeding
Loss of genetic variation
Inbreeding effect on reproductive rates
Bad reproduction rates
What causes habitat fragmentation
Clearing
What does clearing cause
Habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation
Formation of several habitat fragments whose total surface area is less than original habitat
Formation of several habitat fragments whose total surface area is less than original habitat
Habitat fragmentation
Degradation of the edges of habitats cause
Increased competition between species as the fragments become smaller
What results in increased competition between species as the fragments become smaller
Degradation of the edges of habitat fragments
Potential efffect of degradation of habitat edges
Decrease in biodiversity
Human causes of habitat fragmentation
Natural ecosystems are cleared for….
Agriculture
Housing
Hydroelectric dams
Effects of natural ecosystems are cleared for….
Agriculture
Housing
Hydroelectric dams
Habitat fragmentation
Remedy widespread habitat fragmentation
Isolated fragments can be linked with habitat corridors
Isolated fragments can be linked with habitat corridors
Fix habitat fragmentation
Habitat corridor
Narrow strip or series of clumps of habitat by which species can move between otherwise disconnected fragments of habitat
Narrow strip or series of clumps of habitat by which species can move between otherwise disconnected fragments of habitat
Habitat corridor
What do habitat corridors allow
Animals to acess more food and have a bigger choice of mate
May lead to recolonisation of small fragments after local extinction
What allows animals…
Animals to acess more food and have a bigger choice of mate
May lead to recolonisation of small fragments after local extinction
Habitat corridors
Introduced species
Non native
Humans moved intentionally or accidentally to new geographical location
Non native
Humans moved intentionally or accidentally to new geographical location
Introduced species
What can a introduced species be
Naturalised
Naturalised species
Established within wild community
Established within wild community
Naturalised species
What can a naturalised species be
Invasive
Invasive species
Spread rapidly and eliminated native species
> reducing species diversity
May be free of predators, pathogens, parasites, competition that limits their population in natural habitat
May prey on native species, outcompete them for resources or hybridise with them
pread rapidly and eliminated native species
> reducing species diversity
May be free of predators, pathogens, parasites, competition that limits their population in natural habitat
May prey on native species, outcompete them for resources or hybridise with them
Invasive species
