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H Biology > Unit 3: Sustainability and Inderdependance > Flashcards

Unit 3: Sustainability and Inderdependance Flashcards

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1
Q

Feeding the increasing population requires…

A

A sufficient and sustainable supply of food

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2
Q

Food production must be ___

A

Sustainable

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3
Q

Why must food production be sustainable

A

So it does not degrade the natural resources on which agriculture depends

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4
Q

How to make sure food production does not degrade the natural resources on which agriculture depends

A

Make it sustainable

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5
Q

Food security

A

The ability of human populations to access food of sufficient quality and quantity

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6
Q

The ability of human populations to access food of sufficient quality and quantity

A

Food security

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7
Q

3 things food must be for food security

A

Sufficient food must be available at all times

Food is sufficiently nutrients and varied to provide a balanced diet

People have economic means to obtain the available food

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8
Q

What does agricultural production depend on

A

Factors that control plant growth

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9
Q

How many edible plant species are there

A

75000

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10
Q

What is food production dependent on

A

Photosynthesis

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11
Q

Main crops species

A

Maize
Rice
Potato
Legumes
Roots

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12
Q

things to improve plant growth

A
  1. Adding minerals (fertiliser) or water (irrigation systems) to remove factors that may be limiting plant growth
  2. Replacing existing strains of crops with a higher yield cultivar (cultured variety)
  3. Protecting crops from pests (eg insects), diseases (eg. Fungi), and competition (from weeds) by using pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides
  4. Developing pest-resistant crop plants
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13
Q
  1. Adding minerals (fertiliser) or water (irrigation systems) to remove factors that may be limiting plant growth
  2. Replacing existing strains of crops with a higher yield cultivar (cultured variety)
  3. Protecting crops from pests (eg insects), diseases (eg. Fungi), and competition (from weeds) by using pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides
  4. Developing pest-resistant crop plants
A

Improving plant growth

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14
Q

Breeders seek to develop crops with……

A

Higher nutritional values

Resistance to pests and disease

Physical characteristics suited to rearing and harvesting

Plants that can thrive in particular environmental conditions

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15
Q

Ways energy is lost from food chains

A

Undigested food and waste

Movement

Maintaining body temperature

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16
Q

What is lost through..

Undigested food and waste

Movement

Maintaining body temperature

A

Energy

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17
Q

Only ____ of energy is incorporated into body tissues

A

10%

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18
Q

As you move along a food chain, what happens

A

Energy is lost between tropic levels

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19
Q

When is energy is lost between tropic levels

A

As you move along a good chain

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20
Q

Livestock produce ___ food per unit area than plants

A

Less

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21
Q

Why do livestock produce less food than plants

A

Because of loss of energy

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22
Q

Shorter food chains have _______ loss of energy

A

Much less

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23
Q

Livestock production advantage

A

Often possible in habitants unsuitable for growing crops

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24
Q

Light

A

A form of electromagnetic radiation which travels in waves

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25
Q

A form of electromagnetic radiation which travels in waves

A

Light

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26
Q

Wavelength

A

Distance between two crests

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27
Q

Distance between two crests

A

Wavelength

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28
Q

What are wavelengths measured in

A

nm

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29
Q

Each colour of light has a different …..

A

Wavelength

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30
Q

What happens to white light (sunlight) hitting a leaf

A

either..

Reflected

Or

Transmitted

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31
Q

Leaves contain several…

A

Coloured pigments which chlorophyll is the most important

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32
Q

What do leaf pigments do

A

Absorb light energy. Each pigment absorbs a different wavelength of light

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33
Q

Absorption spectra

A

Shows the absorption of light of each wavelength by each pigment

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34
Q

Action spectrum

A

Shows the rate of photosynthesis at each light wavelength

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35
Q

Shows the absorption of light of each wavelength by each pigment

A

Absorption spectra

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36
Q

Shows the rate of photosynthesis at each light wavelength

A

Action spectrum

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37
Q

What do xanthopyll and carotene (carotenoids) do

A

Extend the range of light wavelengths absorbed

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38
Q

What extend the range of light wavelengths absorbed

A

Carotenoids

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39
Q

What are known as accessory pigments

A

Carotenoids

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40
Q

Why are carotenoids known as accessory pigments

A

As they pass the energy they capture to chlorophyll for photosynthesis

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41
Q

Where are photosynthetic pigments contained

A

Grana

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42
Q

What are contained in the grana

A

Photosynthetic pigments

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43
Q

What happens in the grana

A

Absorption of light energy

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44
Q

Where does absorption of light energy happen

A

In grana

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45
Q

Where does carbon fixation happen

A

In stroma

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46
Q

What happens in stroma

A

Carbon fixation

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47
Q

What happens when light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll a

A

It’s electrons become excited

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48
Q

What causes chlorophyll a’s electrons to become excited

A

When light energy is absorbed

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49
Q

What happens to the excited electrons

A

They are captured by the primary electron acceptor

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50
Q

When are excited electrons captured by the primary electron acceptor

A

After they become excited

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51
Q

What happens after the electrons are captured by the primary electron acceptor

A

The electrons are transferred along the electron transport chain releasing energy

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52
Q

What is the energy from the excited electrons used for

A

Used by ATP synthase to generate ATP

Some energy also used in photolysis

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53
Q

Photolysis

A

Splitting water into oxygen (which is released) and hydrogen which is transferred to coenzyme NAD to make NADH

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54
Q

Splitting water into oxygen (which is released) and hydrogen which is transferred to coenzyme NAD to make NADH

A

Photolysis

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55
Q

Stage 1 of photolysis

A

Absorbed light energy excited electrons in the pigment molecule

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56
Q

Stage 2 of photolysis

A

Transfer of the electrons through the ETCs releases energy to generate ATP by ATP synthase

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57
Q

Stage 3 of photolysis

A

Energy is split into oxygen which is evolved

And

Hydrogen ions that is transferred to coenzyme NADP

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58
Q

3 states of photolysis

A

Absorbed light energy excited electrons in the pigment molecule

Transfer of the electrons through the ETCs releases energy to generate ATP by ATP synthase

Energy is split into oxygen which is evolved

And

Hydrogen ions that is transferred to coenzyme NADP

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59
Q

What from the electron transport chains are used in the Calvin cycle

A

ATP

And

NADPH

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60
Q

When does Calvin cycle happen

A

At the end of the first stage of photosynthesis

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61
Q

First stage of photosynthesis

A

Photolysis / light dependant stage

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62
Q

Second stage of photosynthesis

A

Calvin cycld

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63
Q

Where does the Calvin cycle take place

A

Stroma

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64
Q

Stage 1 of Calvin cycle

A

Carbon dioxide enters the cycle and attaches to RuBP.

This reaction is controlled by the enzyme RuBisCO

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65
Q

RuBP full name

A

Ribulose biphosphate

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66
Q

RuBisCO full name

A

Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase / oxygenanase

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67
Q

Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase / oxygenanase

A

RuBisCO

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68
Q

Ribulose biphosphate

A

RuBP

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69
Q

Stage 2 of Calvin cycle

A

the CO2 and RuBP combine to make 3PG

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70
Q

3PG

A

3-phosphoglycerate

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71
Q

Stage 3 of Calvin cycle

A

3PG combines with H from NADPH and is phosphorylated by the adddition of inorganic phosphate from ATP which supplies the energy

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72
Q

Stage 4 of Calvin cycle

A

This produced G3P

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73
Q

G3P

A

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

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74
Q

Stage 5 of Calvin cycle

A

Some G3P is used to regenerate RuBP (to continue the process)l the remainder is used for the synthesis of glucose

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75
Q

Five stages of Calvin cycle

A

Carbon dioxide enters the Cycle and attaches to RuBP. This reaction is controlled by the enzyme RuBisCO

the CO2 and RuBP combine to make 3PG

3PG combines with H to form NADPH and is phosphorylated by the adddition of inorganic phosphate from ATP which supplies the energy

This produced G3P

Some G3P is used to regenerate RuBP (to continue the process)l the remainder is used for the synthesis of glucose

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76
Q

How does the enzyme RuBisCO fix carbon dioxide

A

By attaching it to RuBP

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77
Q

What is 3PG phosphorylated by

A

ATP

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78
Q

What does 3PG combine with

A

Hydrogen from NADPH to form G3P

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79
Q

What is G3P used for

A

To regenerate RuBP and for the synthesis of glucose

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80
Q

The glucose formed in photosynthesis is used for…

A

Respiration

Starch

Cellulose

Biosynthetic pathways
- fats
- proteins
- DNA

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81
Q

Cellulose

A

Structural carbohydrate

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82
Q

Why does plant and animal breeding happen

A

To improve characteristics to help support sustainable food production

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83
Q

What characteristics do breeders want

A

Higher crop yields

Higher nutritional values

Pest and disease resistance

Ability to thrive in specific conditions

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84
Q

Purpose of plant field trials

A

Compare the performance of different plants

To evaluate GM crops

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85
Q

What factors must be considered when designing a plant field trial

A

Selection of treatments to be used (allows for valid comparisons)

Number of replicates to be included (to take into account the variability within the sample)

Randomisation of treatments (to eliminate bias when measuring treatment effects)

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86
Q

selection of treatments for field trials

A

For each equal sized crops only one variable should be altered

All other variables should remain constant to ensure a valid comparison can be made

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87
Q

Number of replicates for plant trials

A

if only one treatment of each condition of fertiliser were carried out, the results would be unreliable

Differences in each plot and differences in how the experiment was carried out would occur aka experimental error

To minimise experimental error and take into account of variability of results then a minimum of three replicates must be set up

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88
Q

Randomisation of treatments in plant trials

A

If plots in a field were created in an orderly fashion then bias could exist

Allocating the plot treatments randomly eliminates bias

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89
Q

Inbreeding

A

The fusion of two gametes from close relatives

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90
Q

The fusion of two gametes from close relatives

A

Inbreeding

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91
Q

inbreeding practically

A

Selected related plants or animals are bred for several generations until the population breeds true to the described type due to the elimination of heterozygotes

Inbreeding is naturally occurring in some species of self pollinating plants

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92
Q

First effect of inbreeding

A

An increase in the frequency of individuals who are homozygous for recessive deleterious alleles

The individuals will do less well at surviving to reproduce

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93
Q

Second effect of inbreeding

A

Inbreeding depression

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94
Q

What does continuous inbreeding lead to

A

A loss of heterozygosity and increase in frequency of individuals who are homozygous for recessive deleterious alleles

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95
Q

What causes a loss of heterozygosity and increase in frequency of individuals who are homozygous for recessive deleterious alleles

A

Inbreeding

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96
Q

What happens if a natural out breeder is forced to inbreed

A

Inbreeding depression can occur

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97
Q

How does inbreeding depression occur

A

Accumulation of homozygous recessive alleles which can be deleterious.

Inbreeding results in decline of size, vigour, fertility, and yield across generations

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98
Q

What is an F1 hybrid

A

An individual resulting from a cross between two genetically dissimilar parents

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99
Q

An individual resulting from a cross between two genetically dissimilar parents

A

F1 hybrid

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100
Q

Hybrids breeding

A

Breeders will cross members of one variety of a species that have a desired characteristics with members of another variety that has another desired characteristic

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101
Q

Aim of hybrids

A

To produce a hybrid that has both desired characteristics

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102
Q

Why does crossbreeding happen

A

Problems associated with inbreeding

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103
Q

How are new alleles introduced for crossbreeding

A

By crossing a cultivar or breed with an individual with a different desired genotype

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104
Q

How are f1 hybrids produced

A

By crossing two inbred lines, create a relatively uniform heterozygous crop

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105
Q

Advantage of F1 hybrids

A

Display increased vigour and yield.

Poorer recessive genes are masked by superior dominant ones

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106
Q

Qualities of plants with increased vigour

A

May have increased disease resistance or increased growth rate

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107
Q

Why are F1 hybrids not bred together

A

As F2 generations show too much variation

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108
Q

What can variation be

A

Continuous

Or

Discrete

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109
Q

What are discrete variation controlled by

A

Alleles of a single gene

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110
Q

What can alleles be

A

Dominant or recessive

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111
Q

What can variation in a population be

A

Discrete

Or

Continuous

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112
Q

Two ways of genetic technology

A

Genetic sequencing

Genetic transformation

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113
Q

Ways to enhance plants and animals

A

Selective breeding

Genetic technology

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114
Q

What can genetic sequencing be used for

A

To identify organisms that possess particular alleles for a desired characteristics

This animal can then be selected for use in a breeding programme

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115
Q

What can be used to…

To identify organisms that possess particular alleles for a desired characteristics

This animal can then be selected for use in a breeding programme

A

Genetic sequencing

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116
Q

Genetic transformation definition

A

The transfer of genetic info from one organisms to other

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117
Q

The transfer of genetic info from one organisms to other

A

Genetic transformation

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118
Q

What can genetic transformation be used for

A

To enhance a crop species that can then be used in a breeding programme

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119
Q

What can be used to enhance a crop species that can then be used in a breeding programme

A

Genetic transformation

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120
Q

Genetic transformation stages

A
  1. Single gene for desirable characteristics selected
  2. Gene inserted into genome of crop plants
  3. Genetically modified plants with improved characteristics produced
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121
Q
  1. Single gene for desirable characteristics selected
  2. Gene inserted into genome of crop plants
  3. Genetically modified plants with improved characteristics produced
A

Stages of genetic transformation

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122
Q

Example of recombinant DNA technology in plant breeding

A

Bt toxin gene
> pest resistance

Glyphosate resistance gene
> herbicide tolerance

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123
Q

Bt toxin gene
> pest resistance

Glyphosate resistance gene
> herbicide tolerance

A

Example of recombinant DNA technology in plants

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124
Q

Balanced community

A

In a natural ecosystem, there is a balance between the producers and consumers

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125
Q

What does diversity and genetic variety in a species allow for

A

Resilience to weeds pests and fungal infections

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126
Q

Only one species of crop plant lives in the area

Members of species are often genetically identical

A

Monoculture

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127
Q

Monoculture

A

Only one species of crop plant lives in the area

Members of species are often genetically identical

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128
Q

What has to be done with a monoculture

A

Tightly control weeds, pests, and fungal infections to ensure greatest wild of crop

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129
Q

What do weeds compete with

A

Crop plants

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130
Q

What damage crop plants

A

Pests and diseases

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131
Q

What do pressure and diseases do to crop plants

A

Damage them

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132
Q

What reduces productivity in crop plants

A

Weeds

Pests

Diseases

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133
Q

Effects of

Weeds

Pests

Diseases

On plant crops

A

Reduce productivity

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134
Q

Annual weeds

A

Plants that complete their entire life cycle (from seed to death) in one year

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135
Q

Plants that complete their entire life cycle (from seed to death) in one year

A

Annual plants

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136
Q

4 values of annual plants

A

High seed output

Rapid growth

Seeds viable for long periods of time

Short life cycle

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137
Q

High seed output

Rapid growth

Seeds viable for long periods of time

Short life cycle

A

Annual plants properties

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138
Q

Perennial weeds

A

Plants that live for several years, becoming dormant in winter and growing again in spring

The weeds are already established in the habitat

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139
Q

Plants that live for several years, becoming dormant in winter and growing again in spring

The weeds are already established in the habitat

A

Perennial weeds

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140
Q

Properties of perennial weeds

A

Reproduce vegetatively (asexually)

Have storage organs to provide food when conditions are poor

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141
Q

Reproduce vegetatively (asexually)

Have storage organs to provide food when conditions are poor

A

Perennial weeds

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142
Q

Inverterbrae pests

A

Fall into 3 groups

Molluscs

Rematode worms

Insects

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143
Q

Fall into 3 groups

Molluscs

Rematode worms

Insects

A

Invertebrate pests

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144
Q

Effects of invertebrate pests

A

Destroy the leaves, reducing the plants ability to carry out photosynthesis & produce sugar

Some pests may be a vector for other diseases

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145
Q

Ultimate effect of invertebrate Perrys

A

Reduce vigour and yield

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146
Q

Wheat are plant diseases caused by

A

Pathogens

147
Q

What can plant disease pathogens be

A

Bacteria

Fungi

Viruses

148
Q

What can plant disease pathogens be spread through

A

Air

Soil

Inveterate vectors

149
Q

What can spread through

Air

Soil

Inveterate vectors

A

Pathogens of plant disease

150
Q

What can plant diseases affect

A

The yeild of the crop

151
Q

Economic affect of plant disease

A

Reduced yield

Make crops less marketable if they are blemished or degrade too quickly in storage

152
Q

Reduced yield

Make crops less marketable if they are blemished or degrade too quickly in storage

A

Economic consequences of plant diseases

153
Q

By what means can weeds, pests, and diseases be controlled

A

Chemical

Cultural

154
Q

Cultural methods of crop protecting

A

Ploughing

Weeding

Crop rotation

155
Q

Ploughing

Weeding

Crop rotation

A

Cultural means of control

156
Q

Ploughing

A

Turning the top 20cm of soil every time a field is ploughed.

Many weeds are buried deep enough for them to die and decompose

157
Q

Turning the top 20cm of soil every time a field is ploughed.

Many weeds are buried deep enough for them to die and decompose

A

Ploughing

158
Q

Weeding

A

Removal of weeds should be done early in the life of the crop to reduce competition

159
Q

Removal of weeds should be done early in the life of the crop to reduce competition

A

Weeding

160
Q

Crop rotation

A

A series of different crops are grown one after the other on the same piece of ground - over 4 growing seasons

161
Q

A series of different crops are grown one after the other on the same piece of ground - over 4 growing seasons

A

Crop rotation

162
Q

Chemical means of crop protection

A

Herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides can be used to control pests when cultural means fail

163
Q

Herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides can be used to control pests when cultural means fail

A

Chemical means of crop protection

164
Q

Pesticides include

A

Herbicide - kill weeds
Fungicide- control fungal diseases
Insecticide- kill insect pests
Molluscides - kill mollusc pests
Nematocide - kill nematodes

165
Q

Herbicide - kill weeds
Fungicide- control fungal diseases
Insecticide- kill insect pests
Molluscides - kill mollusc pests
Nematocide - kill nematodes

A

Pesticides

166
Q

What can herbicide be

A

Selective

Or

Systemic

167
Q

What can be..

Selective

Or

Systemic

A

Herbicides

168
Q

Selective herbicides

A

Mimic the action of plant growth hormones

Speeds up the metabolism of broad leafed plants to the extent that they use up their food reserves and die

Narrow leafed plants eg. Cereal crops aren’t affected

169
Q

Mimic the action of plant growth hormones

Speeds up the metabolism of broad leafed plants to the extent that they use up their food reserves and die

Narrow leafed plants eg. Cereal crops aren’t affected

A

Selective herbicide

170
Q

Systemic herbicide

A

Absorbed by the plant + quickly transported to all areas of the plant

spreads through the vascular system to prevent regrowth

lethal effect on roots and leaves of plant

171
Q

Absorbed by the plant + quickly transported to all areas of the plant

spreads through the vascular system to prevent regrowth

lethal effect on roots and leaves of plant

A

Systemic herbicide

172
Q

What are pesticides essential for

A

Protecting crops

173
Q

Systemic pesticides effect on invertebrates

A

Only kill when invertebrate ingest plant material through feeding

Invertebrate ingests poisonous chemical

174
Q

Only kill when invertebrate ingest plant material through feeding

Invertebrate ingests poisonous chemical

A

Systemic pesticides

175
Q

Fungicide

A

Kill fungal parasites which causes diseases in crop plants

Protective applications of fungicide based on disease forecast are often more effective than treating a diseased crop

176
Q

Kill fungal parasites which causes diseases in crop plants

Protective applications of fungicide based on disease forecast are often more effective than treating a diseased crop

A

Fungicide

177
Q

Problems with pesticides

A

Chemicals may be toxic to non target animal species

Persistence in the environment

Bioaccumulation pope magnification in food chains

Producing resistance populations of pests

178
Q

Chemicals may be toxic to non target animal species

Persistence in the environment

Bioaccumulation pope magnification in food chains

Producing resistance populations of pests

A

Problems with pesticides

179
Q

Bioaccumulation

A

Many pesticides have been found to persist in the environment

Chemical found at low concentration in the environment but can accumulate within an organisms tissues over time

180
Q

Many pesticides have been found to persist in the environment

Chemical found at low concentration in the environment but can accumulate within an organisms tissues over time

A

Bioaccumulation

181
Q

Bio magnification

A

Organisms living in an environment with pesticides present can accidentally ingest them

The chemicals increase in concentration going up the food chain/trophic levels

182
Q

Organisms living in an environment with pesticides present can accidentally ingest them

The chemicals increase in concentration going up the food chain/trophic levels

A

Biomagnification

183
Q

Biological control

A

Control of pests population by introducing a natural enemy

184
Q

Control of pests population by introducing a natural enemy

A

Biological control

185
Q

3 methods of biological control

A

Predator

Parasite

Pathogen

186
Q

Negatives of biological control

A

Works best in closed systems such as greenhouses so that the control agent cannot escape into wider environment

Control organisms may become invasive to a species, parasite, prey or be a pathogen of another species

If escape occurs into an environment which is free from predators, parasites, and diseases then their numbers could increase rapidly and infect the local population - invasive species

187
Q

Works best in closed systems such as greenhouses so that the control agent cannot escape into wider environment

Control organisms may become invasive to a species, parasite, prey or be a pathogen of another species

If escape occurs into an environment which is free from predators, parasites, and diseases then their numbers could increase rapidly and infect the local population - invasive species

A

Risks of biological control

188
Q

Integrated pest management

A

Used a combo of chemical biological and cultural methods to improve yeild

189
Q

Used a combo of chemical biological and cultural methods to improve yeild

A

Integrated pest management

190
Q

IPM aim

A

To reduce chemical use and only use chemicals which do not persist and reduce pets to levels which allow biological control methods to take over

191
Q

To reduce chemical use and only use chemicals which do not persist and reduce pets to levels which allow biological control methods to take over

A

IPM aim

192
Q

Animal welfare

A

An animals state of well-being is regarded as acceptable only if the animal is able to…

Behave in a natural way
Live free from disease
Grow vigorously

193
Q

An animals state of well-being is regarded as acceptable only if the animal is able to…

Behave in a natural way
Live free from disease
Grow vigorously

A

Animal welfare

194
Q

What does providing livestock with good environmental conditions to live involves

A

Costs

Benefits

Ethics

195
Q

Intensive farming is _____ ethical than free range farming

A

Less

196
Q

Why is intensive farming less ethical

A

Due to poorer animal welfare

197
Q

Free range farming is ____ expensive

A

More

198
Q

Why is free range farming more expensive

A

Requires more land

More labour intensive

199
Q

Advantages of free range farming

A

Products sold at higher price

Animals have better quality of life

200
Q

Products sold at higher price

Animals have better quality of life

A

Advantages of free range

201
Q

Benefits of intensive farming

A

More cost effective

Higher profits

202
Q

Behavioural indicators of poor animal welfare

A

Stereotypy

Misdirected behaviour

Failure in sexual/parental behaviour

Altered activity levels

203
Q

Stereotypy

Misdirected behaviour

Failure in sexual/parental behaviour

Altered activity levels

A

Behavioural indicators of poor welfare

204
Q

Stereotypy

A

Repetitive movement, often lacking variation

Appears to lack purpose

205
Q

Repetitive movement, often lacking variation

Appears to lack purpose

A

Stereotypy

206
Q

When is Stereotypy mostly seen

A

Animals in bare, confined quarters

207
Q

Misdirected behaviour

A

Normal behaviour is directed inappropriately

Or be misdirected towards surroundings

208
Q

Normal behaviour is directed inappropriately

Or be misdirected towards surroundings

A

Misdirected behaviour

209
Q

Example of misdirected behaviour

A

Animals may mutilate themselves by over grooming

210
Q

Failure of sexual /parental behaviour

A

Failure of animals to breed successfully

Offspring rejected

211
Q

Failure of animals to breed successfully

Offspring rejected

A

Failure of sexual / parental behaviour

212
Q

Apathy

A

Very low levels of activity

213
Q

Very low levels of activity

A

Apathy

214
Q

Very high levels of activity

A

Hysteria

215
Q

Hysteria

A

Very high levels of activity

216
Q

Symbiosis

A

A relationship between organisms of two different species that live in direct contact with one another

217
Q

A relationship between organisms of two different species that live in direct contact with one another

A

Symbiosis

218
Q

Co evolution

A

Intimate relationships that have evolved over millions of years

219
Q

Intimate relationships that have evolved over millions of years

A

Co evolution

220
Q

Two types of symbiotic relationships

A

Parasitic

Mutualism

221
Q

Parasitism

Mutualism

A

Two types of symbiotic relationships

222
Q

Parasitism

A

Dependence as the parasite is always reliant on the host

223
Q

Dependence as the parasite is always reliant on the host

A

Parasitism

224
Q

Mutualism

A

Interdependence as the two partners are mutually dependant upon one another

225
Q

Interdependence as the two partners are mutually dependant upon one another

A

Mutualism

226
Q

Who benefits in parasitism

A

The parasite

227
Q

What does the parasite get in parasitism

A

Energy or nutrients from the host

228
Q

Host in parasitism

A

Host is harmed, or at least loses energy

229
Q

Parasite dependence

A

Parasites have a limited metabolism and cannot survive out of contact with the host

230
Q

Ways of transmission of parasites

A

Direct contact

Release of resistant stages

Use of vector

231
Q

Direct contact

Release of resistant stages

Use of vector

A

Ways of transmission of parasites

232
Q

Direct contact

A

Passed from person to person by physical contact

233
Q

Passed from person to person by physical contact

A

Direct contact

234
Q

Release of resistant stages

A

Able to survive adverse environmental conditions until they come into contact with a new host

235
Q

Able to survive adverse environmental conditions until they come into contact with a new host

A

Release of resistant stages

236
Q

Use of vector

A

Carry disease

237
Q

Two types of parasitic life cycles

A

Direct life cycle

Indirect life

238
Q

Direct lifecycle

Indirect cycle

A

Two types of parasitic life cycles

239
Q

Direct life cycle

A

Eggs are shed and passed to a new member of the host species

240
Q

Eggs are shed and passed to a new member of the host species

A

Direct life cycle

241
Q

Indirect life cycle

A

In addition to using a primary host as the site for sexual reproduction,

The parasite employs a secondary host species in its life cycle

242
Q

In addition to using a primary host as the site for sexual reproduction,

The parasite employs a secondary host species in its life cycle

A

Indirect life cycle

243
Q

What does a secondary host allow

A

Immature parasites to complete their lifecycle

244
Q

What allows immature parasites to complete their lifecycle

A

Secondary host

245
Q

Who benefits in mutualism

A

Both organisms

246
Q

Two types of mutualism

A

Both organisms provide a service

Or

One organism provides a service one provides a resource

247
Q

4 advantages of living in a social group

A

Easier to catch food

Protection

Help raising young

Finding mates

248
Q

Easier to catch food

Protection

Help raising young

Finding mates

A

Advantages of living in a social group

249
Q

What is social hierarchy

A

A system where members of a social group are organised into a graded order of rank

250
Q

A system where members of a social group are organised into a graded order of rank

A

Social hierarchy

251
Q

What do dominant individuals do in social hierarchy

A

Carry out ritualistic (threat) displays

252
Q

Who carry out ritualistic (threat) displays

A

Dominant individuals in social hierarchies

253
Q

What do subordinate animals do in social hierarchy

A

Appeasement behaviour to reduce conflict

254
Q

Who carry out appeasent behaviour to reduce conflict

A

Subordinate animals

255
Q

Reason for alliances

A

To increase social status within group

256
Q

How to increase social status within group

A

Alliances

257
Q

Dominant behaviours in wolves

A

Head raised

Ears raised

Teeth bared

Eyes staring

258
Q

Head raised

Ears raised

Teeth bared

Eyes staring

A

Dominant behaviours in wolves

259
Q

Submissive behaviour in wolves

A

Teeth covered

Ears lowered

Head lowered

260
Q

Teeth covered

Ears lowered

Head lowered

A

Submissive behaviour

261
Q

What do social hierarchies improve

A

A species survival

262
Q

3 advantages of social hierarchy

A

Agression between members is ritualised - so conflict and injury is reduced

Experience leadership gaurenteed

Increased chance of dominant genes being passed on

263
Q

Agression between members is ritualised - so conflict and injury is reduced

Experience leadership gaurenteed

Increased chance of dominant genes being passed on

A

Advantages of social hierarchies

264
Q

Co op hunting

A

Predatory animals often hunt together as groups to increase their hunting success

265
Q

Predatory animals often hunt together as groups to increase their hunting success

A

Coop hunting

266
Q

Advantages of coop hunting

A

Less emerging is used power individual

Increased chance of success

Emailed larger power to be caught

Gain more food than foraging alone

267
Q

Less emerging is used power individual

Increased chance of success

Emailed larger power to be caught

Gain more food than foraging alone

A

Advantages of coop hunting

268
Q

Safety in numbers

A

By staying together as a large group, many animals are protected from predators

269
Q

Advantages of large formations of animals

A

Many eyes to look out for predators

Some individuals can keep a watch and others can forage for food

Special formations to protect young

270
Q

Many eyes to look out for predators

Some individuals can keep a watch and others can forage for food

Special formations to protect young

A

Advantages of large formations of animals

271
Q

Musk ox

A

Form defensive ring with young at centre

272
Q

Altruism

A

Behaviour that is unselfish and harms the donor but benefits the recipient

273
Q

Behaviour that is unselfish and harms the donor but benefits the recipient

A

Altruism

274
Q

Example of altruism

A

One meerkat standing grind while others eat

275
Q

Types of altruism

A

Reciprocal altruism

Kin selection

276
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

One animal helping another in the prospect of the favour being returned

The roles of donor and recipient later reverse

277
Q

One animal helping another in the prospect of the favour being returned

The roles of donor and recipient later reverse

A

Reciprocal altruism

278
Q

Example of reciprocal altruism

A

Grooming to remind parasites in apes

279
Q

kin selection

A

Animals being related

Donor will benefit as there is an increased chance of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or future offspring (their relatives reproduce)

280
Q

Animals being related

Donor will benefit as there is an increased chance of survival of shared genes in the recipient’s offspring or future offspring (their relatives reproduce)

A

Kin selection

281
Q

Social insects

A

Complex social behaviour with only some individuals contributing reproductively

282
Q

Most members of a been colony are ____

A

Workers

283
Q

Queen in colony

A

Lays eggs

284
Q

Worker in colony

A

Defend hive

Collect pollen

Preform wiggle dance

285
Q

Drone in colony

A

Mate with queen

286
Q

Why do sterile workers raise relatives

A

To increase survival of shared genes

287
Q

Why do some animals have a long period of parental care

A

Opportunity to learn complex social behaviour

288
Q

Why are complex social behaviours important

A

Essential for survival

289
Q

Examples of complex social behaviour

A

Foraging

Hunting

Recognising danger

290
Q

Complex social behaviours support…

A

Social hierarchy to reduce conflict

And

Group behaviour (alliances to increase social status

291
Q

How do primates reduce unnecessary conflict

A

Ritualistic displays and appeasement behavioue

292
Q

Ritualistic behaviour

A

Threat

Makes them look larger and adopt a certain posture

293
Q

Threat

Makes them look larger and adopt a certain posture

A

Ritualistic behaviour

294
Q

Appeasement behaviour

A

Submissive displays to make you look smaller, flatter, motionless, and unthreatening

295
Q

Submissive displays to make you look smaller, flatter, motionless, and unthreatening

A

Appeasement behaviour

296
Q

Social behaviours

A

Grooming

Facial expression

Body posture

Sexual presentation

297
Q

Grooming

Facial expression

Body posture

Sexual presentation

A

Social behaviour

298
Q

Grooming

A

Chimpanzees and other primates employ grooming as an effective way of reducing tension within the group.

One animal picks plant material, fleas and scabs from the fur of another.

This often takes the form of reciprocal altruism

It also cements relationships and can being about reconciliation after a fight

299
Q

Chimpanzees and other primates employ grooming as an effective way of reducing tension within the group.

One animal picks plant material, fleas and scabs from the fur of another.

This often takes the form of reciprocal altruism

It also cements relationships and can being about reconciliation after a fight

A

Grooming

300
Q

Facial expression in primates

A

Closed eyes
= submissive

Open and closed lips rapidly
= friendly and submissive

Grinning with teeth employed
= submissive

301
Q

Closed eyes
= submissive

Open and closed lips rapidly
= friendly and submissive

Grinning with teeth employed
= submissive

A

Facial expression in primates

302
Q

Body posture

A

Soft grunting notes

Quick bows

Lower themselves

= submissive

303
Q

Soft grunting notes

Quick bows

Lower themselves

= submissive

A

Body posture in primates

304
Q

Sexual presentation

A

Female chimpanzees offer their rumps to appease dominant male

The male will sniff and become aroused

Alternative to aggressive behaviour

305
Q

Female chimpanzees offer their rumps to appease dominant male

The male will sniff and become aroused

Alternative to aggressive behaviour

A

Sexual presentation in primates

306
Q

Purpose of alliances

A

Increased social status

307
Q

How to increase social status

A

Alliances

308
Q

Is an individuals position fixed in a social hierarchy

A

No

309
Q

Biodiversity

A

The total variation that exists among all living things on earth

310
Q

The total variation that exists among all living things on earth

A

Biodiversity

311
Q

Measurable components of biodiversity

A

Genetic diversity

Species diversity

Ecosystem diversity

312
Q

Genetic diversity

Species diversity

Ecosystem diversity

A

Measurable components of biodiversity

313
Q

What does genetic diversity result from

A

the genetic variation shown by the number and frequency of all the genes possessed by its members

314
Q

What happens to genetic variation if one population of a species dies out

A

The species may have lost some of its genetic diversity

Limiting its ability to adapt to changing conditions

315
Q

2 factors taken into account when measuring species diversity

A

Richness of a species

Relative abundance of each species

316
Q

How many factors are taken into account when measuring species diversity

A

2

317
Q

Richness of a species

A

No. Of different species in the ecosystem

318
Q

No. Of different species in the ecosystem

A

Richness of a species

319
Q

Relative abundance of each species

A

Proportion of each species in the ecosystem

320
Q

Proportion of each species in the ecosystem

A

Relative abundance of each species

321
Q

A community with a dominant species has ____ species diversity than one with the same species richness but no dominant species

A

Lower

322
Q

A community with a _____ species has lower species diversity than one with the same species richness but no dominant species

A

Dominant

323
Q

Ecosystem diversity

A

The no of distinct ecosystems within a defined area

324
Q

The no of distinct ecosystems within a defined area

A

Ecosystem diversity

325
Q

What do humans do to satisfy the demands of the ever increasing population

A

Chop down, plough up, dam, and pollute natural habitats

326
Q

Why do humans chop down, plough up, dam, and pollute natural habitats

A

to satisfy the demands of the ever increasing population

327
Q

What is human degredation causing

A

The rate of species extension to be much higher than the natural background rate

328
Q

What is causing the rate of species extension to be much higher than the natural background rate

A

Human degregation

329
Q

Overexploitation

A

To remove and use up indivuduals at a rate that exceeds the species max rate of reproduction

Eg overfishing

330
Q

To remove and use up indivuduals at a rate that exceeds the species max rate of reproduction

Eg overfishing

A

Overexploitation

331
Q

What does over exploitation cause

A

Decrease in genetic diversity

332
Q

Effects of over exploitation on populations

A

Can be reduced but may still recover

333
Q

Some species genetic diversity

A

Low but still remain stable

334
Q

How to prevent over exploitation

A

Allowing time for depleted stocks to recover

Catch quotas

335
Q

Allowing time for depleted stocks to recover

Catch quotas

A

How to prevent overexpoitation

336
Q

Natural disaster effect on population

A

Serious consequences

If surviving population is very small, it may have lost much of the genetic variation needed to adapt to further environmental change

337
Q

What causes if surviving population is very small, it may have lost much of the genetic variation needed to adapt to further environmental change

A

Bottleneck effect

338
Q

What does loss of genetic variety produce

A

Population whose members are so similar that reproduction among them is genetically equivalent to inbreeding

339
Q

What causes population whose members are so similar that reproduction among them is genetically equivalent to inbreeding

A

Loss of genetic variation

340
Q

Inbreeding effect on reproductive rates

A

Bad reproduction rates

341
Q

What causes habitat fragmentation

A

Clearing

342
Q

What does clearing cause

A

Habitat fragmentation

343
Q

Habitat fragmentation

A

Formation of several habitat fragments whose total surface area is less than original habitat

344
Q

Formation of several habitat fragments whose total surface area is less than original habitat

A

Habitat fragmentation

345
Q

Degradation of the edges of habitats cause

A

Increased competition between species as the fragments become smaller

346
Q

What results in increased competition between species as the fragments become smaller

A

Degradation of the edges of habitat fragments

347
Q

Potential efffect of degradation of habitat edges

A

Decrease in biodiversity

348
Q

Human causes of habitat fragmentation

A

Natural ecosystems are cleared for….

Agriculture
Housing
Hydroelectric dams

349
Q

Effects of natural ecosystems are cleared for….

Agriculture
Housing
Hydroelectric dams

A

Habitat fragmentation

350
Q

Remedy widespread habitat fragmentation

A

Isolated fragments can be linked with habitat corridors

351
Q

Isolated fragments can be linked with habitat corridors

A

Fix habitat fragmentation

352
Q

Habitat corridor

A

Narrow strip or series of clumps of habitat by which species can move between otherwise disconnected fragments of habitat

353
Q

Narrow strip or series of clumps of habitat by which species can move between otherwise disconnected fragments of habitat

A

Habitat corridor

354
Q

What do habitat corridors allow

A

Animals to acess more food and have a bigger choice of mate

May lead to recolonisation of small fragments after local extinction

355
Q

What allows animals…

Animals to acess more food and have a bigger choice of mate

May lead to recolonisation of small fragments after local extinction

A

Habitat corridors

356
Q

Introduced species

A

Non native

Humans moved intentionally or accidentally to new geographical location

357
Q

Non native

Humans moved intentionally or accidentally to new geographical location

A

Introduced species

358
Q

What can a introduced species be

A

Naturalised

359
Q

Naturalised species

A

Established within wild community

360
Q

Established within wild community

A

Naturalised species

361
Q

What can a naturalised species be

A

Invasive

362
Q

Invasive species

A

Spread rapidly and eliminated native species
> reducing species diversity

May be free of predators, pathogens, parasites, competition that limits their population in natural habitat

May prey on native species, outcompete them for resources or hybridise with them

363
Q

pread rapidly and eliminated native species
> reducing species diversity

May be free of predators, pathogens, parasites, competition that limits their population in natural habitat

May prey on native species, outcompete them for resources or hybridise with them

A

Invasive species

H Biology (3 decks)

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