Unit 2: Metabolism and Survival Flashcards
What is a metabolic pathway?
a metabolic pathway is an intergrated and controlled pathway of enzyme catalysed reactions within a cell
what kind of steps do metabolic pathways have?
revirsable and irreversible steps, and alternative routes
catabolic pathways
the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules, releasing energy
anabolic pathways
build up (biosynthesis) large molecules from small molecules, require energy
connection between catabolic and anabolic pathways
the energy released from the catabolic pathways is transferred to the anabolic pathways
fermentation in animals equation
glucose –> pyruvate –(reversiable - oxygen is produced) —> lactate
fermentation in plants and yeast equation
glucose –> pyruvate –> ethanol and CO2
what happens when metabolic pathways are modified?
they can contain alternative routes, so that steps can be passed
when are alternative routes used by a cell?
when a cell has a plentiful supply of sugar
what controls the entry and exist of substances in a cell?
the cell membrane
describe the fluid mosaic model
- a double layer that is constantly moving
- it is made up of phospholipid molecules and proteins
how do large molecules cross the cell membrane?
they depend on protein carrier molecules
what do transport proteins contain?
pores or channels
where are protein pumps/carrier molecules found
on the cell membrane
what do protein pumps do?
transfer specific ions across the membrane
what is the role of protein pores/channels?
to allow specific substances to diffuse across the membrane
how do protein pumps work
actively pump ions in and out of their cell
do protein pumps pump against or with the concentration gradient?
against the concentration gradient
what do protein pumps require for active trasport of ions/molecules?
energy
how do protein pumps get energy?
from respiration
what are protein pumps affect by?
the availability of oxygen, food, and temperature
where are enzymes embedded?
in membranes
what is the relationship between enzymes and metabolic pathways?
metabolic pathways are controlled by the presence or absence of enzymes, regulating the rate of reaction
what is the meaning of enzymes that are continually expressed?
the enzymes are always present in the cell
what is the result of the absence of catalysts?
most reactions in biological systems would take place too slowly to produce products at an adequate place for metabolising organisms
connection between catalysts and enzymes
enzymes are biological catalysts
what do catalysts do?
increase/speed up chemical reactions
what are the shapes of enzymes?
they are globular proteins
what are the three qualities of enzymes as catalysts?
- lowers the activation energy
- speeds up the rate of reaction
- takes part in but is unchange by the reaction
what is activation energy?
the energy required to break thhe bonds of the reactants to produce products
when do the bonds of reactants break?
when the reactants have obsorbed enough energy to make them stable
2 steps of induced fit
- substrate binds to the enzyme at the active site
- binding of the substrate induces the enzyme’s active site to change shape so that there is an exact fit once a substrate is bound
after what process can reactions occur?
after induced fit has occured
what happens to the active site when a reaction involved two or more substrates?
The shape of the active site helps orientate the reactants in the correct position so a reaction can take place
what are the 5 stages of the substrate bonding to the active site?
- the substrate molecules have a high affinity for the active site
- the active site holds the reactants together in an induced fit
- the chemical bonds in the reactants are weakened, the activation energy is lowered
- the products now have a low affinity for the active site and are released
- the active site the enzyme is free to repeat the process
what is the third stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the chemical bonds in the reactants are weekend, the activation energy is lowered
what is the fifth stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the active site the enzyme is free to repeat the process
what is the second stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the active site holds the reactants together in an induced fit
what is the forth stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the products now have a low affinity for the active site and are released
what is the first stage of the substrate bonding to the active site?
the substrate molecules have a high affinity for the active site
high affinity
a strong sense of attraction of two substances
low affinity
a weak sense of attraction of two substances
what is the result of low substrate concentration on the product(s)?
low product concentration
what is the result of high substrate concentration on the product(s)?
more product formation, increased rate of reaction
what is the result of a further increase in substrate concentration?
maximum product formation, max. rate of reaction
what is the result of excess substrate concentration?
no further increase in product formation, max. rate maintained
(max rate of reaction) despite the increasing substrate concentration, there is ……..
no further increase in product formation
example of a metabolic pathway
metabolite W –> metabolite X –> metabolite Y –> metabolite Z
arrows: enzymes
when are enzymes activated in metabolic pathways?
when the metabolites become available
what are most enzyme reactions?
reversible
what is always maintained during enzyme catalysed metabolic pathways?
balance is always maintained
how do enzyme inhibitors affect the rate of reaction?
it decreases the rate of reaction
competitive inhibitors
molecules that will compete with the normal substrate for the reaction
compare the shapes of normal substrates with competitive inhibitors
the competitive inhibitors are similar in shape to the normal substrates
what happens when the substrate concentration is low?
(in relation to inhibitors)
the inhibitors successfully compete for the active site
what happens when substrate concentration is low?
(in relation to products formed)
fewer substrate molecuels are converted into products and the rate of reaction is reduced
when are the effect of the competitive inhibitors overcame?
when the high concentration of substance molecules compete successfully for the active site of enzymes
when is maximum reaction rate achieved?
at high substance concentration
what do competitive inhabitors compete with?
the usual substrate
what do the competitive inhabitors compete for?
the oppurtunity to bind with the active site of enzymes
how can the effect of competitive inhabitors be reversed?
increasing the substance concentration
biosynthesis
Build up of large molecules
Bring about the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy
Catabolic pathways
Bring about the buildup of large molecules from small molecules, require energy
Anabolic pathways
Example of catabolic pathway
Respiration
Example of anabolic pathway
Protein synthesis
What type of metabolic pathway is respiration an example of
Catabolic
What type of metabolic pathway is protein synthesis an example of
Anabolic
Where do metabolic pathways happen?
The cell cytoplasm
What are metabolic pathways sped up by?
Enzymes – biological catalysts
what are metabolic pathways controlled by?
Enzymes
When would alternative route be used in metabolic pathways?
When cells have a plentiful supply of sugar
Does diffusion require energy
No – it is passive
What is the name of the movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration?
diffusion
diffusion
the movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration
only ____ _____ molecules can diffuse through protein pores
very small
how do large molecules move across the membrane?
through protein molecules
what do transport protein molecules contain?
pores/channels
protein channels only allow ________ substances to diffuse across the membrane
specific
what are protein pumps also known as?
carrier molecules
where are protein pumps located?
on the cell membrane
what do protein pumps do?
transfer specific ions across the membrane
what structure transfers specific ions across the membrane
protein pumps
do protein pumps require energy?
yes, it is active transport
where do protein pumps source their energy from?
respiration
what three things are protein pumps affected by?
- availability of oxygen
- availability of food
- temperature
without what would most reactions in biological systems would take place too slowly to produce products at an adequate place for metabolising organisms
catalysts
enzymes ________ the rate of reaction by ____________ the activation energy
increase, lowering
what happens after induced fit has occurred?
chemical reaction
first step of induced fit
- substrate binds to the enzyme at the active site
second step of induced fit
binding of the substrate induces the enzyme’s active site to change shape so that there is an exact fit once a substrate is bound
stage 1 of substrate binding to active site
- the substrate molecules have a high affinity for the active site
stage 2 of substrate binding to active site
- the active site holds the reactants together in an induced fit
stage 3 of substrate binding to active site
- the chemical bonds in the reactants are weekend, the activation energy is lowered
stage 4 of substrate binding to active site
- the products now have a low affinity for the active site and are released from the active site
stage 5 of substrate binding to active site
- the active site the enzyme is free to repeat the process
a strong sense of attraction of two substances
high affinity
a weak sense of attraction of two substances
low affinity
low product concentration
low substrate concentration
more product formation, increased reaction rate
high substrate concentration
max. product formation, max rate of reaction
further increase in substrate concentration
no further increase in product formation, maximum reaction rate maintained
excess substrate concentration
metabolite W –> metabolite X –> metabolite Y –> metabolite Z
arrows: enzymes
what happens when metabolite W becomes available?
enzyme 1 is activated and converts W to Z
metabolite W –> metabolite X –> metabolite Y –> metabolite Z
arrows: enzymes
what happens when metabolite x becomes available?
enzyme 2 is activated and converts X to Y
where do non competitive inhibitors attach to on enzymes?
a position away from the active site
what effect does a non competitive inhibitor have on the active site?
changes the shape
What do noncompetitive inhibitor prevent the substrate from doing
Binding to the active site
What is the effect of non-competitive inhibitor is on product formation?
Stops the formation of product as induced fit cannot be achieved
What effect do noncompetitor inhibitors have on reaction rate?
Reduce the reactionary
Add to high substrate concentration, all enzyme active sites are ______
occupied
can max reaction rate ever be achieved with a non competitive inhibitor?
no, it cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration
what do non competitive inhibitors do
prevent bound substrate being converted into product
compare without inhibitor, with competitive inhibitor, and non competitive
Substrate can normally bind to active site of an enzyme
competitive inhibitor mimics substrate and competes for active site
noncompetitive inhibitor alters conformation of enzymes so active site is no longer fully functional
When does feedback inhibition occur
When an end product in the metabolic pathway reaches a critical concentration
What does feedback inhibition prevent
Wasteful conversion and accumulation
Cellular respiration
A series of biochemical reactions that allow a cell to generate energy
A series of biochemical reactions that allow a cell to generate energy
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration
A series of biochemical reactions that allow a cell to generate energy
In human cells, reactions occur to convert glucose into —-
Adenosine triphosphate
Full name of ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
What is ATP
Energy rich molecule
What kind of reaction is respiration
Catabolic
Describe how respiration is catabolic
It is the break down of large nutrient molecules into smaller ones and releases energy used to drive other reactions
It is the break down of large nutrient molecules into smaller ones and releases energy used to drive other reactions
How respiration is catabolic
Word equation for aerobic respiration in animals
Glucose and oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Glucose and oxygen —> carbon dioxide + water + energy
Word equation for aerobic respiration in animals
What are carbs broken down into during aerobic respiration
Smaller glucose molecules
What does the breakdown of carbs produce
Energy
What happens when glucose enters the cell
It is burnt
What is the process called when glucose is burnt
Combustion
Where does combustion happen in a cell
Mitochondria
What happens to glucose in the mitochondria
It is burnt - combustion
Reactants of aerobic respiration
Oxygen and glucose
Oxygen and glucose
Reactants of aerobic respiration
Waste products of aerobic respiration
Carbon dioxide and water
What happens to the waste products of aerobic respiration
They are carried by the blood to the alveoli into the air (out of the body)
They are carried by the blood to the alveoli into the air (out of the body)
What happens to the waste products of aerobic respiration
As you get closer to the ribose, the phosphate bonds hold ____ energy
Less
As you get closer to the ribose, the _______ bonds hold less energy
Phosphate
Three parts of ATP molecule
(left to right)
Adenosine, ribose, three Phosphates
Adenosine, ribose, three Phosphates
Three parts of ATP molecule
(left to right)
When is energy held in an ATP molecule released
When the bond attaching the terminal phosphate molecule is broken by enzyme activity
When the bond attaching the terminal phosphate molecule is broken by enzyme activity
When is energy held in an ATP molecule released
What is the terminal phosphate
The phosphate molecule furthest from the ribose
What does ATP become when you break the terminal phosphate
ADP adenosine diphosphate
ADP adenosine diphosphate
What does ATP become when you break the terminal phosphate
What is required to regenerate ATP from ADP and Pi
Energy
What does ADP act as
The link between catabolic and anabolic reactions
What acts as the link between catabolic and anabolic reactions
ADP
What is ATP
The carrier and regulation-storage unit of energy
The carrier and regulation-storage unit of energy
What is ATP
What can ATP be used for (examples)
Muscle cell contractions
Cell division
Protein synthesis
Transmission of nerve impulses
Muscle cell contractions
Cell division
Protein synthesis
Transmission of nerve impulses
What can ATP be used for (examples)
Phosphorylation
An enzyme-controlled process by which a phosphate group is added to a molecule
An enzyme-controlled process by which a phosphate group is added to a molecule
Phosphorylation
ATP is not ….
Stored
Example of phosphorylation
The formation of high energy molecule, ATP
The formation of high energy molecule, ATP
Example of phosphorylation
What is ATP used for
To transfer energy to cellular processes which require energy
To transfer energy to cellular processes which require energy
What is ATP used for
When does phosphorylation also occur
When phosphate and energy are transferred from ATP to the molecules of a reactant in a metabolic pathway making them more reactive
When phosphate and energy are transferred from ATP to the molecules of a reactant in a metabolic pathway making them more reactive
When does phosphorylation also occur
Glycolysis
The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm
The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate in the cytoplasm
Glycolysis
Where do all chemical reactions happen
The cytoplasm
Three points on glycolysis
Occurs in the cytoplasm
A molecule of glucose is broken down into pyruvate
Enzyme controlled steps
Stage 1 of glycolysis
Energy investment stage, 2 ATP molecules used
Energy investment stage, 2 ATP molecules used
Stage 1 of glycolysis
Stage 2 of glycolysis
Energy pay off stage, 4 ATP molecules produced
Energy pay off stage, 4 ATP molecules produced
Stage 2 of glycolysis
What is ATP required for in relation to glycolysis
For the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates during the energy investment stage
For the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates during the energy investment stage
What is ATP required for in relation to glycolysis
what is the net gain of glycolysis
2 ATP molecules
What does coenzyme NAD do
During glycolysis, Picks up hydrogen ions released by a dehydrogenase enzyme
During glycolysis, Picks up hydrogen ions released by a dehydrogenase enzyme
What does coenzyme NAD do
In glycolysis, what releases hydrogen ions
Dehydrogenase enzyme
During glycolysis, what does dehydrogenase enzyme release
Hydrogen ions
What was the end product of glycolysis
Pyruvate
how many carbons foes an acetyl group have
2
what is NADH made up of
H+ ions and NAD
In the citric acid cycle, what does acetyl group of coenzyme A combine with?
oxaloacetate
In the citric acid cycle, what does oxaloacetate combine with?
the acetyl group of coenzyme A
in the citric acid cycle, what does the combination of coenzyme A and oxaloacetate form?
citrate
what is citrate made up of?
coenzyme A and oxaloacetate
where does the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate occur
cytoplasm
where does the further breakdown of pyruvate occur
mitchondria
what is the second stage of respiration
the citric acid cycle
what stage in the citric acid cycle in respiration
stage 2
where does the citric acid cycle happen
the matrix of the mitochondrion
what cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion
the citric acid cycle
what is required for the phosphorylation of glucose and intermediates during stage 1 of glycolysis
ATP
what is pyruvate broken down into in aerobic conditions
an acetyl group
what does the combination of an acetyl group and coenzyme A produce
acetyl coenzyme A
what is acetyl coenzyme A made up of
acetyl group and coenzyme A
the breakdown of what produces an acetyl group
pyruvate
in what conditions does the breakdown of pyruvate into an acetyl group occur
aerobic conditions
what happens in the citric acid cycle
A) the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
B) the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
C) during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
D) H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
E)NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
A) the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
B) the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
C) during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
D) H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
E) NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
stages of the citric acid cycle
part A of the citric acid cycle
the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
part B of the citric acid cycle
the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
the acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxloacetate to form citrate
part B of the citric acid cycle
the acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
part A of the citric acid cycle
what do dehydrogenase enzymes do
remove hydrogen ions and electrons and pass them to the coenzyme NAD, forming NADH
remove hydrogen ions and electrons and pass them to the coenzyme NAD, forming NADH
what dehydrogenase enzyme does
when does dehydrogenase enzymes remove hydrogen ions and electrons
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
in the citric acid cycle, what gets passed to the electron transport system chain
the hydrogen ions and electrons from NADH
what is part B of the citric acid cycle controlled by
enzymes
what is formed in part B of the citric acid cycle
citrate
what is produced in the conversion of citrate into oxaloacetate
ATP and carbon dioxide
what do dehydrogenase enzymes do in the citric acid cycle
remove H+ ions from the respiratory substrate along with associated electrons
what enzyme removes H+ ions from the respiratory substrate along with associated electrons
dehydrogenase enzymes
in the citric acid cycle, what are passed to the coenzyme NAD
H+ ions and electrons
in the citric acid cycle, what are H+ ions and electrons passed to (to form NADH)
coenzyme NAD
what do coenzyme NAD and H ions and electrons form in the citric acid cycle
NADH
what is NADH made up of
coenzyme NAD and H+ ions
what happens to NADH when it is formed
its passed to the electron transport chain
what is passed to the electron transport chain when it is formed
NADH
where is the electron transport chain
the inner mitochondrial membrane
what is the electron transport chain
a series of carrier proteins attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane
a series of carrier proteins attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane
the electron transport chain
in the electron transport chain, where does the NADH come from
the glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
what is produced in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
NADH
what does NADH do
release electrons and pass them on to the electron transport system
what releases electrons and pass them on to the electron transport system
NADH
what do electrons release as they go through the electron transport chain
energy
what releases energy as it goes through the electron transport chain
electrons
in the electron transport chain, what is the energy from the electrons used for
to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane from the inner membrane space
(where a higher concentration of hydrogen ions is maintained)
to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane from the inner membrane space
(where a higher concentration of hydrogen ions is maintained)
what the energy from the electrons used for in the electron transport chain
describe the hydrogen ion conc in the inner membrane
higher hydrogen ion conc
what goes in the return flow to the matrix
hydrogen ions
where does the return flow of hydrogen ions go to
the matrix
describe the matrix in relation to H+ ions conc
the region of lower H conc
how is most of the ATP generated by cellular respiration produced
through the electron transport system
what happens to the electrons when they come to the end of the electron transport chain
they combine with oxygen, the final hydrogen acceptor
what combines with oxygen at the end of the electron transport chain
electrons
when do electrons combine with oxygen
at the end of the electron transport chain
at the end of the electron transport chain, what does oxygen combine with
a pair of hydrogen ions
at the end of the electron transport chain, what combines with a pair of hydrogen ions
oxygen
what is formed when oxygen combines with a pair of hydrogen ions
water, H2O
what 2 things happen at the end of the electron transport chain
electrons combine with oxygen
oxygen combines with a pair of hydrogen ions to form water
electrons combine with oxygen
oxygen combines with a pair of hydrogen ions to form water
what 2 things happen at the end of the electron transport chain
what is oxygen in the electron transport chain
the final hydrogen acceptor
the final hydrogen acceptor
oxygen
fermentation
releases a small quantity of energy from the partial breakdown of glucose
releases a small quantity of energy from the partial breakdown of glucose
fermentation
what cannot happen during fermentation
citric acid cycle
AND
electron transport chain
why can’t the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain happen in fermentation
they require oxygen
where does fermentation take place
the cytoplasm
what is pyruvate converted into in animal cells
lactate
is pyruvate –> lactate in animal cells reversible?
yes
in fermentation in plant and yeast, what is produced
ethanol and CO2
where does glycolysis occur
cytoplasm
in what cells are ethanol and CO2 a product of fermentation
plant and yeast
is fermentation in plant and yeast cells reversible?
no
how many ATP is produced in fermentation
2
what type of respiration results in 2 ATP molecules being produced
fermentation
ATP is only produced when its _______
required
word equation for fermentation in animals and some bacteria
glucose –> pyruvate –> lactate
glucose –> pyruvate –> lactate
word equation for fermentation in animals and some bacteria
during the formation of lactate, the body accumulates an ___________
oxygen debt
during the ___________________, the body accumulates an oxygen debt
formation of lactate
when is oxygen debt repaid
when an individual rests and breathes deeply
what happens when there is an oxygen debt
an individual rests and breathes deeply, this repays the oxygen debt
lactate is then converted back into pyruvate and continues along the aerobic pathway
oxygen debt
during the formation of lactate
Part C of the citric acid cycle
during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
during enzyme controlled steps, citrate is gradually converted back into oxloacetate
—> resulting in the generation of ATP and release of carbon dioxide.
Part C of the citric acid cycle
H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
Part D of the citric acid cycle
Part D of the citric acid cycle
H+ ions and electrons are passed to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH
Part E of the citric acid cycle
NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
NADH passes its H+ ions to the electron transport chain
Part E of the citric acid cycle
metabolic rate
the quantity of energy consumed by an organism per unit time
the quantity of energy consumed by an organism per unit time
metabolic rate
what is energy required for in all organisms
to keep them alive
three ways to measure metabolic rate
1) volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
2) volume of carbon dioxide released/unit time
3) heat production/unit time
1) volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
2) volume of carbon dioxide released/unit time
3) heat production/unit time
three ways to measure metabolic rate
three things to measure metabolic rate with
1) use of a respirometer
2) use of a calorimeter
3) O2 or CO2 probes
1) use of a respirometer
2) use of a calorimeter
3) O2 or CO2 probes
three things to measure metabolic rate with
using a respirometer
- CO2 produced by the organism is absorbed by potassium hydroxide pellets
- as oxygen is used up, the level of oxygen will rise up the tube
measured to see the volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
- CO2 produced by the organism is absorbed by potassium hydroxide pellets
- as oxygen is used up, the level of oxygen will rise up the tube
measured to see the volume of oxygen consumed/unit time
using a respirometer
metabolic rate _______ between ___________ and _________
metabolic rate differs between organisms and people
_______ _____ differs between organisms and people
metabolic rate
_____ and __________ have higher metabolic rates in comparison to __________, ____________, and ________
birds and mammals have higher metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
birds and mammals have ________ metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
birds and mammals have higher metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
birds and mammals have higher _________ _____- in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
birds and mammals have higher metabolic rates in comparison to reptiles, amphibians, and fish
what do birds and mammals have to support their higher metabolic rates
different circulatory systems than other species
why do birds and mammals have different circulatory systems than other species
as they require more efficient delivery of oxygen to their cells
what species require more efficient delivery of oxygen to their cells
birds and mammals
what is the circulatory system made up of
heart
blood vessels
blood
what do..
heart
blood vessels
blood
make up
circulatory system
anatomy
structure
physiology
function
what species have a complete double circulatory systems
mammals and birds
what circulatory systems do mammals and birds have
complete double circulatory systems
complete double circulatory systems
the heart has two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
there is no mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood
the oxygenated blood can be pumped out at a higher pressure
-> enabling more efficient delivery to cells
the heart has two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
there is no mixing of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood
the oxygenated blood can be pumped out at a higher pressure
-> enabling more efficient delivery to cells
complete double circulatory systems
heart in complete double circulatory systems
two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
two atria and two ventricles divided by a septum
heart in complete double circulatory systems
in complete double circulatory systems, is there mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
no
in complete double circulatory systems, what doesnt mix
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
in complete double circulatory systems, what can be pumped out at a higher pressure
oxygenated blood
in complete double circulatory systems, what happens to oxygenated blood
pumped out at a higher pressure
what species have incomplete double circulatory systems
amphibians and reptiles
what circulatory systems do amphibians and reptiles have
incomplete double circulatory systems
incomplete double circulatory systems
two atria but only one ventricle
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
in amphibians, mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
in reptiles, the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
two atria but only one ventricle
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
in amphibians, mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
in reptiles, the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
incomplete double circulatory systems
heart in incomplete double circulatory systems
two atria but only one ventricle
two atria but only one ventricle
heart in incomplete double circulatory systems
what mixes in two atria but only one ventricle
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
does oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix in incomplete double circulatory systems
yes
mixing oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in amphibians
mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
in what animals is mixing is not a problem as the animal partially oxygenates the blood through the moist skin surface
amphibians
in reptiles, what is in the heart
the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
the ventricle is partially divided by a septum
reptiles
what species has single circulation
fish
what circulatory system do fish have
single circulation
single circulation system
one atrium, one ventricle
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
gills - high pressure
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
one atrium, one ventricle
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
gills - high pressure
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
single circulation system
heart in single circulation system
one atrium, one ventricle
one atrium, one ventricle
single circulation system
blood in single circulation system
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
blood passes through the two chambered heart only once on each circuit around the whole of the circulation system of the animal
blood in single circulation system
what blood pressure do gills carry blood at
high
capillary beds in single circulation systems
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
capillary beds supply tissues with oxygen at low pressures as the narrow network of tubes offers high resistence to the flow of blood
-> primitive and relatively inefficient method of circulation
capillary beds in single circulation systems
abiotic factors examples
Temperature, pH, salinity
Temperature, pH, salinity
Abiotic factors examples
external environnemental are ____________ ___________, abiotic factors are _______ _________
external environnemental are constantly changing, abiotic factors are not fixed
___________ _______ are constantly changing, _________ __________ are not fixed
external environnemental are constantly changing, abiotic factors are not fixed
what can regulators do
are able to alter their normal metabolic rate
and maintain a steady internal environment through physiological mechanisms
what are able to alter their normal metabolic rate
and maintain a steady internal environment through physiological mechanisms
regulators
what are conformers able to do
Unable to alter their normal metabolic rate
what are unable to alter their normal metabolic rate
Conformers
What does a conformers internal temperature depend on
The abiotic factors that affects its external environment
what depends on the abiotic factors that affects its external environment
a conformers internal temperature
Where do conformers tend to live
In environments that are relatively stable,
such as the ocean floor
what live in environments that are relatively stable,
such as the ocean floor
Conformers
Metabolic costs of conformers
Low
As it does not employ physiological mechanisms to maintain its inner steady state
what have low metabolic costs
As it does not employ physiological mechanisms to maintain its inner steady state
Conformers
Disadvantage of conformers
The animal is restricted to a narrow range of ecological niches and
is less adaptable to environmental changes
The animal is restricted to a narrow range of ecological niches and
is less adaptable to environmental changes
Disadvantage of conformers
What do conformers use to maintain their optimum metabolic rate and tolerate variation in their external environment
Behavioural responses
Why do conformers use behavioural responses
maintain their optimum metabolic rate and tolerate variation in their external environment
Lizards using behaviour responses
Lizards bask in sunlight to maintain body temp, but cannot shiver
What is a regulators internal environment not directly dependant on
the abiotic factors that affect its environment
what doesn’t depend the abiotic factors that affect its environment
regulators internal environment
How do regulators maintain their internal environment
Regardless of the external environment
Metabolism
what do regulators maintain regardless of the external environment
Their internal environment
What does regulators using metabolism allow them to do
Increases the range of ecological niches
Metabolism for regulation requires what
Energy
Regulators metabolic cost
High
Regulators regulation requires energy to …
Achieve homostatis
Disadvantage of regulators
Organisms must spend energy on the physiological mechanisms needed to maintain its inner state
Organisms must spend energy on the physiological mechanisms needed to maintain its inner state
Disadvantage of regulators
Osmoregulation
The process of maintaining water and salt concentration across membranes within the body
The process of maintaining water and salt concentration across membranes within the body
Osmoregulation
Homeostasis
The maintenance of the body’s internal environmental regardless of the external environment
The maintenance of the body’s internal environmental regardless of the external environment
Homeostasis
What is homeostasis brought about by
Negative feedback control
What does negative feedback control bring about
Homeostasis
What does negative feedback control require
Energy
Negative feedback
Regulators achieve homeostasis using systems made up of receptors, messengers, and effectors.
Regulators achieve homeostasis using systems made up of receptors, messengers, and effectors.
Negative feedback
Stages of negative feedback
Set point
Changes detected by receptors
Electrical impulses sent to the brain
Effectors bring about a corrective response to return internal environment
Set point
Changes detected by receptors
Electrical impulses sent to the brain
Effectors bring about a corrective response to return internal environment
Stages of negative feedback
thermoregulation
The process of maintaining your core internal temperature
The process of maintaining your core internal temperature
Thermoregulation
What does thermoregulation ensure
Optimal enzyme activity to maintain metabolism and high diffusion rates
What ensures optimal enzyme activity to maintain metabolism and high diffusion rates
Thermoregulation
Hypothalamus
The temperature monitoring centre of the brain
The temperature monitoring centre of the brain
Hypothalamus
3 corrections of overheating
- Vasodilation
- Increasing sweating
- Decreased metabolic rate
- Vasodilation
- Increasing sweating
- Decreased metabolic rate
Three corrections of over heating
Vasodilation
The arterioles leading to the skin become dilated,
increasing blood flow to the skin surface, increasing heat loss through radiation
The arterioles leading to the skin become dilated,
increasing blood flow to the skin surface, increasing heat loss through radiation
Vasodilation
Increasing sweating
Heat energy from body is used to evaporate the water in sweat, cooling the skin
Heat energy from body is used to evaporate the water in sweat, cooling the skin
Increasing sweating
Decreased metabolic rate
Less heat produced
Less heat produced
Decreased metabolic rate
4 corrections of overcooling
- Vasoconstriction
- Shivering
- contraction of hair erector muscles
- Increased metabolic rate
- Vasoconstriction
- Shivering
- contraction of hair erector muscles
- Increased metabolic rate
4 corrections of overcooling
Vasoconstriction
The arterioles leading to the skin become constricted.
Decreases the volume of blood flowing to the surface capillaries.
Less heat lost through radiation
The arterioles leading to the skin become constricted.
Decreases the volume of blood flowing to the surface capillaries.
Less heat lost through radiation
Vascoconstriction
Shivering
Muscle contractions generate heat
Muscle contractions generate heat
Shivering
Contraction of hair erector muscles
Hairs are raised trapping a layer of insulating air next to the skin surface
Hairs are raised trapping a layer of insulating air next to the skin surface
Contraction of hair erector muscles
Increased metabolic rate
More heat produced
What cause more heat produced
Increased metabolic rate
Importance of regulating the temperature of our bodies
Optimal enzyme activity
AND High diffusion rates
to maintain metabolism
Optimal enzyme activity
AND High diffusion rates
to maintain metabolism
Importance of regulating the temperature of our bodies
Normal human body temp
37 degrees C
What allows for survival when the costs of continuing normal metabolic activity is too high
Dormancy
What is dormancy a part of
An organisms lifecycle
What does dormancy allow for
Survival when the costs of continuing normal metabolic activity is too high
What is part of an organism’s lifecycle
Dormancy
When does dormancy happen
Extreme..
Temperature
Drought
Food scarcity
What happens during extreme ..
Temperature
Drought
Food scarcity
Dormancy
What causes a decrease in
Heart rate
Breathing rate
Body temperature
Dormancy
Photoperiod
Day length
Day length
Photoperiod
What does dormancy cause a decrease in
Heart rate
Breathing rate
Body temperature
Photoperiod
Day length
Day length
Photoperiod
Predictive dormancy
An organism becomes dormant before the adverse conditions arrive
An organism becomes dormant before the adverse conditions arrive
Predictive dormancy
How do trees respond to
Decreasing photoperiod and temperature in autumn
By shedding their leaves
And
Entering their dormant phase before winter
Why do trees start to shed their leaves
And
Enter their dormant phase before winter
Decreasing photoperiod and temperature in autumn
When do winter buds remain dormant until
Spring
In trees, what remains dormant until spring
Winter buds
Consequential dormancy
When an organism becomes dormant after the adverse conditions arrive
When an organism becomes dormant after the adverse conditions arrive
Consequential dormancy
Where is consequential dormancy most common
In regions of unpredictable climate
What dormancy is most common in regions of unpredictable climate
Consequential dormancy
Consequential dormancy advantage
The organism can remain active for larger and exploit available resources
The organism can remain active for larger and exploit available resources
Consequential dormancy advantage
Consequential dormancy disadvantage
The environmental conditions may kill off individuals before they have had time to become dormant
The environmental conditions may kill off individuals before they have had time to become dormant
Consequential dormancy disadvantage
What animals do hibernation
Endothermic
Before hibernation, what does an animal do
Consume extra food that becomes laid down as a store of fat
When does an animal consume extra food that becomes laid down as a store of fat
Before hibernation
Why is hibernation used
To survive winter or low temperatures
How do animals survive winter or low temperatures
Hibernation
How long does hibernation last
Weeks to months
What dormancy last weeks to months
Hibernation
Example of dormancy in animals
Hibernation
What happens during hibernation
Metabolic rate drops, temperature drops
Slower heart and breathing rate
—> minimum energy expenditure
Metabolic rate drops, temperature drops
Slower heart and breathing rate
—> minimum energy expenditure
What happens during hibernation
What can’t happen in hibernation
The body temp cannot drop too low as homeostatic mechanisms will kick in to ensure survival
Snails in aestivation
They retreat into their shells and seal the opening with dried mucus
Leaving a tinny hole for gas exchange
When do snails retreat into their shells and seal the opening with dried mucus
Leaving a tinny hole for gas exchange
Aestivation
What does aestivation mean for the animal
They remain in the state until favourable conditions
Daily torpor
A period of reduced activity in animals with high metabolic rate
A period of reduced activity in animals with high metabolic rate
Daily torpor
What happens in daily torpor
Animals activity and metabolic rate become greatly reduced for part of every 24hr cycle
Advantage of daily torpor
Survival value
Greatly decreased the rate of energy consumption during the time when searching for food would be unsuccessful or dangerous
Survival value
Greatly decreased the rate of energy consumption during the time when searching for food would be unsuccessful or dangerous
Advantage of daily torpor
Avoiding adverse conditions
Migration
Migration
The regular movement by the members of a species from one place to another over a relatively long distance
The regular movement by the members of a species from one place to another over a relatively long distance
Migration
Disadvantage of migration
Takes a huge amount of energy to move distance
What is tracking migration
When animal migrated
Where the animal is over winter
Whether or not they return to their original summer territory
How long they live for
Techniques for individual marking
Leg ringing with metal bands
Satellite tracking using transmitters
Leg ringing with metal bands
Satellite tracking using transmitters
Techniques for tracking migration
Innate behaviour is _______ and ______
Innate behaviour is inherited and flexible
What behaviour plays a major role in migratory behaviour
Innate behaviour
What does innate behaviour play a significant role in
Migratory behaviour
Innate behaviour is performed in the _________ by _______ of the same ______
Innate behaviour is performed in the same way by every member of the same species
_______ behaviour is performed in the same way by every member of the same species
Innate
When does insure behaviour occur
In response to external stimulus
What happens in response to an external stimulus
Innate behaviour
Learned behaviour begins __________ and is gained by _________
Learned behaviour begins after birth and is gained by experience
________ behaviour begins after birth and is gained by experience
Learned behaviour
What is learned behaviour
Flexible
Microorganisms
Very small, often unicellular organisms
Very small, often unicellular organisms
Microorganisms
3 domains of life
Eukaryotes
Bacteria
Archaea
Examples of eukaryotes
Yeast algae
Examples of bacteria
E coli
Examples of archaea
Methanogens thermophiles
What do microorganisms produce from metabolism
A variety of metabolites
Uses of microorganisms
Medicine
-> making vaccines and antibiotics
Food and enzymes
-> cheese and alcohol
Bioremediation
-> breakdown of sewage and toxic waste
Medicine
-> making vaccines and antibiotics
Food and enzymes
-> cheese and alcohol
Bioremediation
-> breakdown of sewage and toxic waste
Uses for microorganisms
Why are microorganisms ideal in research and industry
Easy to cultivate (culture)
Reproduce and grow quickly
Food substrates are cheap
produces useful products
Highly adaptable
How to ensure successful growth of microorganisms
Provided with a suitable growth medium
And
Carefully controlled environmental factors
What is the point of…
Provided with a suitable growth medium
And
Carefully controlled environmental factors
To ensure successful growth of microorganisms
How do many microorganisms obtain energy
From light for photosynthesis
In industry, what do most microorganisms generate energy from
Chemical substrate on the agar plates they are grown on
What do some microorganisms require to be added to the growth medium
More complex compounds
Growth medium
The substrate microorganisms are grown on
The substrate microorganisms are grown on
Growth medium
Environmental factors to be controlled on growth medium
Sterile
Oxygen levels
pH
Temperature
What factors must be controlled on growth medium
Environmental
Control of sterility in growth medium
Aseptic techniques, steam and filters are used
What does Aseptic techniques, steam and filters control
Sterility
What does Aseptic techniques, steam and filters do
Reduce competition with desired microorganisms for nutrients
Reduce risk of spoilage
How to reduce competition with desired microorganisms for nutrients
Reduce risk of spoilage
Aseptic techniques
Steam
Filters
How to control temperature in growth medium
Water jackets
Thermostats
What do water jackets and thermostats control
Temperature
Effect of water jackets and thermostat on growth medium
Keeps enzymes at their optimum temperature
How to keep enzymes at optimum temperature in growth medium
water jackets and thermostats
How to control oxygen levels in growth medium
Air inlets
Paddles
For aeration
What do air inlets
Paddles
For aeration
Control
Oxygen levels
How to control pH levels in growth medium
Buffers or the use of acid/alkali to keep enzymes at their optimum pH
Buffers or the use of acid/alkali to keep enzymes at their optimum pH
How to control pH in growth medium
What pH do most bacteria grow at
7
What pH do fungi grow at
5-6
Aseptic technique
Precautionary procedures used in microbiology to prevent microbial contamination of cultures, people, or the environment
Precautionary procedures used in microbiology to prevent microbial contamination of cultures, people, or the environment
Aseptic technique
Examples of aseptic technique
Flaming the wire loop
Flaming the bottles and test tubes
Sterile equipment
First phase of growth
Lag phase
Second phase of growth
Log/expidential phase
Third phase of growth
Stationary phase
Forth phase of growth
Death phase
Lag phase
Little to no increase in cell no
Enzymes are induced to metabolise substrates
Little to no increase in cell no
Enzymes are induced to metabolise substrates
Lag phase
Log/exponential phase
Most rapid growth of microorganisms phase due to plentiful nutrients
Most rapid growth of microorganisms phase due to plentiful nutrients
Log/exponential phase
Stationary phase
The nutrients in the culture media becoming depleted
And
The production of toxic metabolites
The nutrients in the culture media becoming depleted
And
The production of toxic metabolites
Stationary phase
when does secondary metabolism occur
end of log phase and during the stationary phase
end of log phase and during the stationary phase
Secondary metabolism
Secondary metabolism
Results in the production of secondary metabolites,
Eg. Antibiotics
Results in the production of secondary metabolites,
Eg. Antibiotics
Secondary metabolism
Secondary metabolism most useful for
The microbe growth and production of new cells
Secondary metabolism in nature
Ecological advantage by allowing microorganisms that produce them to outcompete other microorganisms
Ecological advantage by allowing microorganisms that produce them to outcompete other microorganisms
Secondary metabolism
Growth curve under ideal conditions
Cell number and the rate of population doubles at each cell division
When are semi logarithmic scales used
To produce and interpret growth curves in microorganisms
What is used to produce and interpret growth curves in microorganisms
Semi logarithmic scales
Wild type
Microbes that exist in their typical form in nature
Microbes that exist in their typical form in nature
Wild type
When would a wild type be selected
It exhibiting s desirable genetic trait
Important features microbes may lack
Genetic stability
Ability to grow on low cost nutrients
Ability to allow easy harvesting of the target product
Why is strain improvement employed
To try to alter the wild microbes genome and include the genetic material for these traits
How is strain improvement brought about by
Mutagenesis
Recombinant DNA technology
What can be brought about by …
Mutagenesis
Recombinant DNA technology
Strain improvement
Mutation
A heritable change in an organisms DNA that causes genetic diversity
A heritable change in an organisms DNA that causes genetic diversity
Mutation
What rarely happens with mutations
A mutant allele will confer an advantage on the organism or give it a new property that is useful to humans
Mutagenesis
The creation of mutations
The creation of mutations
Mutagenesis
In nature, mutations are….
Rare
Occur spontaneously and at random
Usually detrimental to the organisms
How to increase the rate of mutation
The use of mutagenic agents
What does the use of mutagenic agents do
Increase the rate of mutation
Examples of mutagenic agents
Radiation
Mutagenic chemicals such as mustard gas
Mutagenesis useful in industry
A microbe mat develop a new property that is useful to humans
What does recombinant DNA technology enable
The transfer of gene sequences from one organisms to another organism or species
What allows for the transfer of gene sequences from one organisms to another organism or species
Recombinant DNA technology
First thing DNA technology can do
Amplify specific metabolic steps in a pathway or removing inhibitory controls affecting it
Thereby increasing yield of the target product
Second thing DNA technology can do
Causes the cells to secrete their product into the surrounding medium allowing it to be easily recovered
Third thing DNA technology can do
Tenders the microorganism unable to survive in on environment and therefore acts as a safety mechanism
Stage 1 of artificial transformation
Select a particular Gene for a desirable characteristic
Stage 2 of artificial transformation
Splice it’s DNA into the DNA of a vector
Stage 3 of artificial transformation
Insert the vector into a host cell
Vector
A DNA molecule used to carry foreign in genetic information into another cell
Both plasmids and artificial chromosomes
A DNA molecule used to carry foreign in genetic information into another cell
Both plasmids and artificial chromosomes
Vector
Why is the host cell described as recombinant dna
As it contains a combination of its own DNA and that from another source joined together
What are two types of enzymes used in recombinant DNA
restriction endonucleases
Ligase
restriction endonucleases
Ligase
Two types of enzymes used in recombinant DNA
What are restriction endonucleases taken from
Microbes
What do restriction endonucleases do
Cut open plasmids
Cut specific genes out of chromosomes
What do restriction endonucleases recognise
Specific sequences of DNA bases called restriction sites
What must happen with restriction endonucleases
Same one used to cut both the plasmid and the Gene from the chromosome
What does using the restriction endonucleases ensure
The ends of both DNA fragments have DNA bases that are complementary to each other
What ensures the ends of both DNA fragments have DNA bases that are complementary to each other
Using the same restriction endonucleases
Sticky ends
The ends of the cut DNA fragments
The ends of the cut DNA fragments
Sticky ends
Ligase
Seals the desired gene into the plasmid creating recombinant plasmid
Seals the desired gene into the plasmid creating recombinant plasmid
Ligase
Each end of the DNA a fragments must have…
Complementary bases
What must a vector have to be effective
Restriction sites
Regulatory sequences
Marker genes
Origins of replication
Restriction site
Contains target sequences of DNA where specific restriction endonucleases cut
Contains target sequences of DNA where specific restriction endonucleases cut
Restriction site
What does restriction site allow for
Using the same RE to cut open the gene from the chromosome
What ensures that the sticky ends of both donor dna and the plasmid dna are complementary
Restriction site
Regulatory sequences
Control gene expression in the plasmid/artificial chromosome
Control gene expression in the plasmid/artificial chromosome
Regulatory sequence
Origins of replication
Genes that control self replication of the plasmid/ artificial chromosome
Genes that control self replication of the plasmid/ artificial chromosome
Origins of replication
What are origins of replication essential for
The generation of many copies of the plasmid within the transformed host cell
What is essential for the generation of many copies of the plasmid within the transformed host cell
Origins of replication
Selectable markers
Select the microorganisms from a selective agent that would usually kill it or prevent it from growing
Select the microorganisms from a selective agent that would usually kill it or prevent it from growing
Selectable markers
What do selectable markers ensure
Only microorganisms that have taken up the vector grow in the presence of the selective agent
