Unit 3: Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
What does anisogamy refer to ?
A
the differences between male and female sex cells
2
Q
Characteristics of male gametes ?
A
- small
- mobile
- created continuously
- do not require a lot of energy to produce
3
Q
Characteristics of female gametes ?
A
- relatively large
- static
- produced at intervals
- limited number
- huge investment of energy
4
Q
What is a consequence of anisogamy for mate selection ?
A
shortage of fertile women
5
Q
What two types of mating strategy does anisogamy create ?
A
- intra-sexual selection
- inter-sexual selection
6
Q
What is inter-sexual selection ?
A
strategy used between the sexes - who males select females and vice versa
7
Q
What is intra-sexual selection ?
A
strategies within a sex to be the one that is selected
8
Q
What is the preferred selection strategy of the female ?
A
Inter-sexual selection - as ova are rarer than sperm
9
Q
Trivers (1972) :
A
female makes a greater investment of time, commitment and resources and stand to loose more
10
Q
What is the runaway process ?
A
females mate with males who are deemed to have attractive traits, therefore this trait becomes more present in the population over time
11
Q
What did Fisher create in 1930 ?
A
the sexy sons hypothesis
12
Q
What does Fishers (1930) sexy sons hypothesis state ?
A
a female mates with a male with ‘desirable’ characteristics to increase the chance that females will mate with her offspring
13
Q
What is the preferred selection strategy of the male ?
A
Intra-sexual selection
14
Q
What has intra-sexual selection given rise to ?
A
dimorphism, the difference between males and females
15
Q
What is a psychological consequence of intra-sexual selection ?
A
for males to acquire fertile females they may benefit from behaving aggressively
16
Q
What does anisogamy dictate a males optimum mating strategy is ?
A
mate with as many fertile women as possible as it requires minimal energy and lack of post-coital responsibility
17
Q
What is a behavioural consequence of intra-sexual selection ?
A
a distinct preference for indicators of youth as well as fertility
18
Q
Supports of sexual selection :
A
+ Clark and Hatfield (1989)
male and female psychology students sent across a uni campus asking ‘I have been noticing you around campus. I find you to be very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?’ no female students agreed while 75% of males did - supports evolutionary theory as females are choosier than males.
+ support from waist-hip ratio research
Singh (1993,2002) males will show a preference for a female body shape that signals fertility (WHR). size is not important but as long as the ratio between one and the other is 0:7 - ‘honest signal’ that a women is fertile but not pregnant
19
Q
Criticism of sexual selection ?
A
- Chang et al (2011)
compared partner preferences in China over 25 years finding some had changed while others stayed the same - any theory that fails to account for cultural influences and just focuses on evolutionary ones is limited
20
Q
Who created social exchange theory?
A
Altman and Taylor (1973)
21
Q
What does social exchange theory state ?
A
when one partner reveals something they display trust and to go on further the other partner must reciprocate with revealing information about themselves - as more is disclosed the partners ‘penetrate’ more deeply into each others lives gaining a greater understanding of each other
22
Q
According to Altman and Taylor what are the two elements of self-disclosure ?
A
- breadth
-depth
23
Q
What is the breadth of disclosure at the start of a relationship ?
A
narrow - many topics are off limits
24
Q
What do Reis and Shaver (1988) point out ?
A
for a relationship to develop, increasing in breadth and depth, there has to be a reciprocal nature to the disclosure
25
What does a balance of self-disclosure in a relationship do ?
- increases intimacy
- deepens relationship
26
Supports of the benefit of self disclosure in romantic relationships?
+ Laurenceau ( 2005 )
method involving writing daily diary entries. found self-disclosure and the perception of self-disclosure in a partner were linked to high levels of intimacy in long-term married couples. reverse also true. This increases our confidence in the validity of the theory that self-disclosure leads to more satisfying relationships
+ Hass and Stafford (1998)
found 57% of gay men and women in their study said open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened their committed relationships - real life application demonstrating the value of the insights
27
Criticism of self-disclosure leading to more satisfying relationships :
- much self disclosure research is correlational. It is assumed that greater self-disclosure creates more satisfaction. But a correlation does not tell us if this is a valid conclusion to draw
28
Shackelford and Larsen (1997) :
found people with symmetrical faces were rated more attractive - as it may be a signal of genetic fitness
people are also attracted to typical baby face features
29
Who states that physical attraction isn't only important at the start of a relationship ?
McNulty et al (2008) found evidence initial attractiveness continued to be an important feature for at least several years
30
What is the physical attractiveness stereotype ?
preconceived ideas about the personality traits attractive people must have
31
Who coined the physical attractiveness stereotype ?
Dion (1972)
32
What did Dion find ?
physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
33
What is the halo effect ?
psychologists use this term to describe how one distinguishing feature tends to have disproportionate influence on our judgements of a person's other attributes (personality)
34
What does the matching hypothesis suggest ?
our assessment of our own attractiveness may play a role in choosing a romantic partner
35
Who created the matching hypothesis ?
Walster et al (1966)
36
Why does the matching hypothesis suggest we do what it states ?
to avoid being rejected we compromise
37
Criticisms of the matching hypothesis :
- Taylor et al (2011)
studied real activity logs on dating sites - measured choices not preferences - found online daters sought potential partners that were more attractive then them, therefore didn't consider their own level of attractiveness
- Towhey (1979)
asked males and females how much they would like to target an individual based on a picture and some information. Also completed a MACHO scale designed to measure attitudes and behaviours. People who scored high on scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness vice versa - challenges notion that it is a significant consideration
38
Support of the halo effect :
+ Palmer and Peterson (2012)
physically attractive people voted as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people. Continued even when they knew they had no expertise - dangerous for democracy - applies to every day and confirms physical attractiveness is more important in all types of relationships
39
Who created filter theory ?
Kerckhoff and Davis ( 1962 )
40
How did Kerckhoff and Davis create the filter theory ?
compared the attitudes and personalities of student couples in short-term and long term relationships - defined filter theory to explain how these form and develop
41
How many factors according to Kerckhoff and Davis are there in narrowing partner choice ?
3 main factors that filter choice to a field of desirables
42
What is Kerckhoff and Davis's first level of the filter ?
- social demography
this is the likelihood potential partners would meet in first place. This is defined by factors such as: proximity, social class, level of education, ethnic group, religion etc
43
According to Kerckhoff and Dais what is the second filter level ?
- similarity in attitudes
sharing important beliefs - they state this was important only for couples who had been together less than 18 months as it promotes self-disclosure
44
What does Byrne (1997) state ?
similarity does not cause attraction
45
What is the third filter in the filter theory ?
- complementarity
more important in long-term couples - feeling that they form a whole
46
Support for filter theory :
+ Winch (1958)
found evidence similarities of personalities/ attitudes between partners is typical of earliest stages of relationships - between partners married for several years complementarity is more important according to Winch
47
Criticisms for filter theory :
- Levinger (1974)
many studies have failed to replicate findings - social change and because of difficulties defining depth of a relationship in terms of its length. It is assumed that after 18 months partners had a deeper relationship.
- lacks temporal validity
rise of online dating changed the process of beginning a romantic relationship and reduced importance of social demographic variables as you can pursue a date with someone outside the usual demographic limits
48
What does Thibault and Kelley (1959) say social exchange theory is ?
that behaviour in a relationship reflects economic assumptions of the relationship - we judge our satisfaction in terms of profit and cost
49
How does the value rewards vary in a relationship ?
they can be subjective
value may change over time
50
What does Blau state (1964)
relationships include another cost opportunity cost. the investment of time and money means you are using resources you can't use anywhere else
51
What are the two ways that we measure profit in a romantic relationship ?
- Comparison level
- Comparison level for alternatives
52
What is the comparison level ?
the amount of reward you believe that you deserve to get
53
How does your comparison level develop ?
- past experience
- social norms
54
What is another factor effecting your comparison level ?
low self esteem will result in a low comparison level
55
What is CLalt ?
do we believe we could gain greater reward and fewer loses else where
56
What does Duck (1994) state about the CLalt we adopt ?
it depends on the state of our current relationship and if costs out weigh rewards - making alternatives appear more attractive
57
According to Thibault and Kelly's SET what are the stages in which relationships develop ?
- sampling stage
- bargaining stage
- commitment stage
- institutionalisation stage
58
Criticisms of Social Exchange Theory:
- direction of cause and effect
Argyle (1987) points out we don't measure the cost and rewards or consider attractiveness of alternatives until we are dissatisfied with the relationship
- Artificial research
majority of studies supporting use artificial tasks in artificial conditions. For example 2 strangers working together on a game-playing scenario in which rewards and costs are distributed. But the 2 know nothing about each other and their 'relationship' depends entirely on the tasks. More realistic studies are less supportive of SET as snapshot studies do not account from properties that emerge in a relationship over time such as trust
- rewards and costs have been defined superficially in order to measure them but psychological rewards are more difficult to define and vary between people. Unclear what values of CL and CLalt must be before dissatisfaction threatens a relationship.
59
Why was equity theory developed ?
because of criticism of SET
60
Who stated equity mattered most ?
Walster (1978)
61
What happens when there is a lack of equity ?
one partner underbenefits while the other overbenefits
62
What is the underbenefitting partner likely to feel ?
- anger
- hostility
- resentment
- humiliation
63
What will the overbenefiting partner feel ?
- guilt
- discomfort
- shame
64
What does equity theory predict a correlation between ?
the greater the perceived inequity the greater the dissatisfaction
65
What makes us unsatisfied in a relationship ?
changes in perceived equity
66
Behavioural ways to deal with inequity ?
the more unfair the relationship feels the harder they will work to restore equity
67
Cognitive ways to deal with inequity?
they will revise their perception of rewards and costs so that the relationship feels more equitable to them even if nothing changes - something that was once seen as a cost is now a norm of the relationship
68
Criticisms of Walster's equity theory (1978) :
- Clark and Mills (2011)
stated that we should distinguish between different types of relationships. Research strongly supports the view that equity plays a central role in casual friendships, business relationships and acquaintanceships but not as important in romantic relationships
- Huseman et al (1987)
suggests some people are less sensitive to equity than others. these people are described as benevolents and are prepared to contribute more to the relationship than they get out of it
- Aumer-Ryan et al (2007)
found cultural differences in the link between equity and satisfaction. Researchers compared couples from individualist and collectivist cultures. Found couples from individualist culture considered their relationship to be most satisfying when equitable but collectivist cultures were most satisfied when over-benefiting (both men and women)
69
What does Rusbult (2011) state ?
commitment depends on
- satisfaction
- comparison with alternatives
- investment size
70
What is Rusbult's investment model a development of ?
Thibault and Kelly's SET
71
What are the two types of investment in Rusbult's investment model ?
- intrinsic
- extrinsic
72
What is an intrinsic investment ?
any resources put directly into the relationship (money, energy etc)
73
What is an extrinsic investment ?
resources that didn't previously feature in the relationship but now is associated with it - possessions bought together ( car ), mutual friends acquired, children, memories
74
What does Rusbult's investment model state predicts relationship commitment ?
if alternatives are less attractive and size of investment is growing
75
What does Rusbult argue the main psychological factor is ?
commitment
it explains why dissatisfied partners may choose to stay in a relationship - its an investment they don't want to see go to waste
76
How does Rusbult's model suggest commitment expresses itself ?
through everyday behaviour. e.g not engaging in tit for tat but acting to promote the relationship (accommodation)
they will also put partners needs first (willingness to sacrifice)
and forgive for any serious offence (forgiveness)
77
Cognitive elements to relationship maintenance and repair ?
unrealistically positive about their partner ( positive illusions )
and negative about alternatives (ridiculing alternatives) more so than less committed partners
78
Criticisms of Rusbult's investment model :
- strong correlations have been found however even the strongest correlation is no evidence of causation. It therefore does not allow us to conclude that any of the factors actually cause commitment in a relationship - as it could be the more committed you feel the more you invest and direction of causality may be reversed
79
Support of Rusbult's investment model :
+ so much of research relies on self-report methods however in this context it is the most appropriate method as it is not the reality of factors such as investment size that matter but partner perception of them. Whether this belief matches reality is really nether here nor there
+ Rusbult and Martz (1995)
studied 'battered' women at a shelter and found that those most likely to return to an abusive partner reported making the greatest investment and having the fewest attractive alternatives. The model recognises a victim of intimate partner violence (IPV) does not have to be satisfied with a relationship to stay in it
80
What does Duck (2007) state to be the phases of relationship breakdown ?
- intra-psychic phase
- dyadic phase
- social phase
- grave dressing phase
81
What does the intra-psychic phase entail ?
focuses on cognitive processes - brooding on reasons of dissatisfaction weighing up pros and cons "I can't stand this anymore"
82
What does the dyadic phase entail ?
"I would be justified in withdrawing"
focuses on interpersonal processes between partners - relationship is discussed/ dissatisfaction aired.
2 possible outcomes - continue breakup or repair it
83
What happens if in the dyadic phase the relationship fails to be rescued ?
the social phase is reached
84
What does the social phase entail ?
it focusses on the wider process involving partners social network - factions are formed
some friends may attempt to save it and some may hasten the end of it
usually point of no return
85
What does the grave dressing phase entail ?
it focuses on the aftermath
partners try and maintain a positive reputation usually by showing the other in a bad light
it also involves creating a personal story that you can live with
86
Criticisms of Duck's phase model of relationship breakdown :
- incomplete
Rollie and Duck added an additional fifth phase the resurrection phase. In this ex-partners turn their attention to future relationships using the experience gained from the just ended one.
the new model also emphasises that the processes that occur in relationship breakdown aren't linear
- most research relating to is retrospective. Meaning that what they can recall may not be accurate or reliable. very early stage tends to be distorted or ignored - impossible to study - meaning his model is based on research that ignored the early stage of relationship breakdown
- Duck's model doesn't explain why breakdown occurs. Flemlee's (1995) fatal attraction hypothesis argues it is because attractive qualities start to become seen as unattractive
87
Who created the reduced cues theory ?
Sproull and Kieser (1986)
88
What does Sproull and Kieser's reduced cues theory state ?
computer mediated communication (CMC) relationships are less effective than FTF as they lack cues . Cues such as non verbal ones (appearance, facial expression, tone of voice)
this lead to de-individualisation as it reduces peoples sense of identity which encourages disinhibition - more likely to be blunt and aggressive and reluctant to self-disclose
89
Who created the hyperpersonal model ?
Walther (1996-2011)
90
What does the hyperpersonal model argue ?
online relationships can be more personal and involve greater self-disclosure than FtF ones as self disclosure happens quicker.
It also argues they can end more quickly as the level of excitement and interaction isn't matched by the level of trust.
boom bust phenomena
91
What does the hyperpersonal model state is a key feature of increased self-disclosure ?
the message sender can manipulate their online image - selective self-presentation
this promotes intimacy and disclosure as they are self-presenting in a positive idealised way
another factor is anonymity
92
What is absence of gating ?
FtF relationships will often fail due to physical barriers some may find off-putting however these 'gates' are absent in CMC allowing virtual relationships to begin in a way they couldn't in the real world
93
What do McKenna and Bargh (1999) argue is an advantage of CMC ?
absence of gating
94
How does absence of gating work and why ?
it works but refocusing attention on self-disclosure and away from the superficial
95
Criticism for reduced cues theory :
- Walther and Tidwell (1995)
people in online interactions use other cues such as timing or emoticons as a substitute for facial expressions and tone of voice
96
Criticism of self disclosure in virtual relationships ( reduced cues theory and hyperpersonal model :
- Walther (2011)
any theory seeking to explain CMC including the role of self-disclosure must accomodate the fact that our relationships are generally conducted both online and offline and what we choose to disclosure in our online relationships will inevitably influence our offline interaction and vice versa
97
Support for the absence of gating :
+ McKenna and Bargh (2000)
looked at CMC using lonely and socially anxious people - found they were able to express 'true selves' and 70% of the relationships formed lasted more than two years - higher proportion than those formed offline
98
Who created the celebrity attitude scale ?
McCutcheon et al (2002)
99
What were the levels of parasocial relationships made out of ?
the celebrity attitude scale
100
Who created the levels of parasocial relationships ?
Maltby et al (2006)
101
What are the 3 levels of parasocial relationships ?
- entertainment-social
- intense-personal
- borderline-pathological
102
What does an entertainment-social parasocial relationship entail ?
least intense level
source of entertainment and fuel of social interaction
more than a normal passing interest still
103
What does an intense-personal parasocial relationship entail ?
great personal involvement
obsessive thoughts
104
What does an borderline pathological parasocial relationship entail ?
strongest level
uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours
105
Who created the absorption-addiction model ?
McCutcheon (2002)
106
What does the absorption-addiction model explain ?
the tendency to form parasocial relationships in terms of deficiencies people have in their own lives
107
What does absorption entail in McCutcheon's absorption-addiction model ?
absorption entails becoming pre-occupied with their celebrity worship as they try to seek fulfilment in it
108
What does addiction entail in McCutcheon's absorption-addiction model ?
addiction entails the individual needing to sustain their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity - this may involve more extreme behaviour and delusions
109
What does Bowlby's attachment theory state causes parasocial relationships ?
early difficulties
110
What does Ainsworth's attachment types state cause parasocial relationships ?
that insecure-resistants are most likely to form parasocial relationships as adults
111
Support of the absorption-addiction model :
+ Maltby (2003)
links entertainment-social with extraverts - intense-personal with neurotics and borderline pathological with psychotics
this supports the model as it confirms the prediction of a correlation between the level of celebrity worship and poor psychological functioning
112
Criticism of the absorption-addiction model :
- better description of parasocial relationships than an explanation
113
Criticism of research into parasocial relationships :
- most use self report
- most use correlational research
