Unit 3: Forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Cultural issues of defining crime :
A
what is considered crime in one culture may not be judged as such in another
2
Q
Historical issues in defining crime :
A
definitions of crime change over time
3
Q
What are the three methods used to measure crime rates :
A
- official statistics
- victim surveys
- offender surveys
4
Q
What are official statistics ?
A
figures based on numbers of crimes reported and recorded by the police which are often used by the government to inform crime prevention strategies
4
Q
What are victim surveys ?
A
a questionnaire that asked a sample of people which crimes have been committed against them over a fixed period of time and whether or not they have been reported to the police
5
Q
What are offender surveys ?
A
a self-report method that requires people to record the number and type of crime they have committed over a specified period of time
6
Q
Criticism of official statistics :
A
- unreliable - significantly underestimate the true extent of crime. Only around 25% of crime is recorded in official figures. Many reasons one being police recording rules and police priorities distorting official figures
7
Q
Support of victim surveys :
A
+ greater degree of accuracy
8
Q
Criticism of victim surveys :
A
- they rely on respondents having accurate recall of the crimes they have been a victim of - Telescoping may occur when victims misremember events as happening in the past year when they didnt - this will distort figures
9
Q
Support for offender surveys :
A
+ provides insight into how many people are responsible for certain offences
10
Q
Criticism for offender surveys :
A
although confidentiality is assured responses may be unreliable as offenders may want to conceal or over exaggerate actions
11
Q
Criticism for the ways of measuring crime :
A
- multidisciplinary approach
researchers advocate this approach when measuring crime: a combination of all available methods provides the best insight into the true extent of the offending
12
Q
What is offender profiling ?
A
a behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown criminals
13
Q
Whats the top-down approach also known as ?
A
the typology approach
14
Q
What is the top-down approach ?
A
profilers start with a pre-established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on witness accounts and evidence from the crime scene
15
Q
What are characteristics of a organised offender ?
A
an offender who shows evidence of planning, targets the victim and tends to be socially and sexually competent with higher than average intelligence
16
Q
What are characteristics of a disorganised offender ?
A
shows little evidence of planning, leaves clues and tends to be socially and sexually incompetent with lower than average IQ
17
Q
What are the 4 main stages in conducting an FBI profile
A
- data assimilation - reviews evidence
- crime scene classification - organised or disorganised?
- crime reconstruction - hypothesis in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of victim etc
- profile generation - hypothesis related to the likely offender
18
Q
Where is the top-down approach from ?
A
America ( used by the FBI )
19
Q
Criticisms of the top-down approach:
A
- top-down profiling is better suited to crime scenes that reveal more detail about the suspect e.g rape, arson and cult killings. More common offences such as burglary do not lend themselves to profiling as the crime scenes reveal very little about the offender - limited approach to identifying a criminal
- to simplistic
behaviours that describe each disorganised and organised arent mutually exclusive - a variety of combinations could occur at a murder scene. Keppel and Walters (1999) focus more on different motivations killers might have rather than trying to determine specific types - the typology approach was developed using interviews with 36 killers in the US - 25 were serial and 11 single or double. small and unrepresentative sample to base a system which may have significant influence on the nature of the police investigation. Canter also argued its not sensible to rely on self-report data when dealing with convicted killers
20
Q
Who created the bottom-up approach ?
A
Britain
21
Q
What is the bottom-up approach ?
A
profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop a hypothesis on the likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender
22
Q
What is investigative psychology ?
A
a form of bottom-up profiling that matches details from the crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns based on psychological theory
23
Q
What is geographical profiling ?
A
a form of bottom-up profiling based on the principle of spatial consistency: that an offenders operational base and possible future offences are revealed about by the geographical location of the previous crimes
24
Who first described Geographical profiling ?
Rossmo in 1997
25
What does geographical profiling use thats known as crime mapping ?
information to do with the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of the offender
26
What does Canter's circle theory (Canter and Larkin 1993) propose ?
two models of offender behaviour:
- the marauder - who operates in close proximity to their home base
- the commuter - who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence
27
What is the pattern of offending likely to form ?
a circle around their usual residence
28
What insight does spatial decision offer ?
- whether it was planned or opportunistic
- what mode of transport they have
- employment status
- aprox age
29
Criticism of the bottom-up approach:
- have been some failures
Copson ( 1995 ) surveyed 48 police forces and found that the advice given by profilers was judged to be 'useful' in 83% of cases but only led to accurate identification in 3% of them
30
Supports of the bottom-up approach:
+ Lundrigan and Canter (2001) collated info from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the USA. they revealed spacial consistency - more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances (maurauders)
+ wider application
it can be applied to a wide range of offences
31
What is a historical approach to offending ?
Lombroso's (1876) atavistic characteristics
32
What was Lombroso's book called and what did it say ?
'L'Huomo Delinquente
is suggested criminals were 'genetic throwbacks' - a primitive sub-species who were biologically different from non-criminals
33
What was built on Lombroso's ideas?
offender profiling
34
How did Lombroso argue criminals could be identified ?
due to being in possession of particular physiological marks - ativistic characteristics
35
What characteristics did the atavistic form include ?
- narrow sloping brow
- prominent jaw
- high cheekbones
- facial asymmetry
- dark skin
- extra toes, nipples or fingers
36
behavioural characteristics Lombroso suggested criminals had ?
- insensitivity to pain
- unemployed
- use of criminal slang
- tattoos
37
What types of criminal did Lombroso go onto categorise ?
- murders
- sexual deviants
- fraudsters
38
How did Lombroso categorise murderers ?
as having bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
39
How did Lombroso categorise sexual deviants ?
as having glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips and projecting ears
40
How did Lombroso categorise fraudsters ?
as having thin and reedy lips
41
How did Lombroso carry out his research ?
he examined the skulls of 383 dead and 3839 living criminals
found 40% of criminal acts criminals do are done by people with atavistic characteristics
42
Support of Lombroso's Atavistic characteristics :
+ 'father of modern criminology'
his theory in many ways heralded the beginning of criminal profiling - major contribution to the science of criminology
43
Criticisms of Lombroso's Atavistic characteristics :
- he did not compare his criminal sample to a non criminal control group - he also failed to account for variables - many of the criminals had a history of severe psychological disorders
- causation is an issue
even if some criminals have atavistic facial elements this does not mean that this is the cause of their offending behaviour. Facial and cranial differences may be a influence of other factors - poor diet, poverty. Later Lombroso does acknowledge criminals can be made as well as born
- scientific racism
critics have drawn attention to the distinct racial undertones within Lombroso's work - many of the features he identifies are most likely to be found among people of African descent. his description would lend support to many eugenic philosophies - whether Lombroso intended this is a matter of debate
44
What does the genetic explanation for crime suggest ?
would-be offenders inherit a gene or combination of genes that predisposes them to commit a crime
45
Who was the first criminal twin study conducted by ?
Lange (1930)
46
What did Lange (1930) investigate ?
13 identical and 17 non-identical twins where one of twins in each pair had spent time in prison
47
What did Lange (1930) find ?
10 of MZ twins but only 2 DZ twins had a co-twin in prison - concluded a genetic factor must play a role
48
Example of an Adoption study :
Crowe (1972)
49
What did Crowe's adoption study research and find ?
adopted children who had a biological parent with a criminal record had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by 18, whereas adopted children whose mothers didn't have a criminal record only had a 5% risk
50
What did Tiihonen's genetic analysis of almost 900 offenders reveal ?
abnormalities on two genes may be associated with violent crime
51
What were the two genes Tiihonen suggested may be associated with violent crime ?
- MAOA gene
- CDH13 gene
52
What does the MAOA gene control ?
dopamine and serotonin in the brain - linked with aggressive behaviour
53
What is the CDH13 gene linked to ?
substance abuse and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
54
How many times more likely did Tiihonen suggest individuals with both tje MAOA and CDH13 genes were likely to have a history of violent behaviour ?
13
55
Problem with Tiihonen's gene research ?
has not been replicated
56
What does the neural explanation suggest ?
there may be neural differences in the brains of criminals and non-criminals
57
What does much of the neural explanation for crime investigate ?
individuals with antisocial personality disorder (APD) (psychopathy)
58
What does Raine report about in his studies of APD brains ?
several dozen brain-imaging studies demonstrating that individuals with antisocial personality disorder have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex of the brain (part that regulates emotion)
he also finds a 11% decrease in volume of grey matter in prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared with controls
59
What did Keyser (2011) find about mirror neurons ?
only when criminals were asked to empathise (to a person on a screen experiencing pain) did the brain reaction ( controlled by mirror neurons) activate
APD individuals not totally without empathy but can switch it off
60
Criticism of neural and genetic explanation :
- criminality is complex, explanations that reduce offending behaviour to a genetic of neural level may be inappropriate and overly simplistic. It is also the case the MZ twin pairs didn't have 100% concordance rate in twin studies
61
Evaluations of the genetic explanation for crime :
- notion of a criminal gene presents a dilemma. Our legal system is based on free will and only in extreme cases can someone claim they didn't have free will. This raises ethical issues about what society does with people who are suspected of carrying criminal genes, and what implications this may have for sentencing
- early twin studies of criminality judgements whether twins were MZ or DZ was made on appearance rather than DNA testing - may lack validity
- most twins are reared in the same environment - major confounding variable. Concordance rate may be due to shared learning experiences rather than genetics
+ Mednick et al (1984)
study of over 13,000 danish adoptees - when neither bio or adoptive parents had a record 13.5% of adoptees did
20% when one bio parent had a conviction
24.5% when both adoptive and bio did
62
What did Eysenck's theory of the criminal personality (1947) propose?
behaviour could be represented along two dimensions:
- introversion/extroversion
- neuroticism/stability
and the two dimensions could combine to form a variety of different personality characteristics/traits
63
What was Eysenck's later added third dimension ?
psychoticism
64
According to Eysenck what are our personality traits ?
biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit
65
Nervous system of an extrovert ?
under active so they are constantly seeking excitement
66
Characteristics of extroverts according to Eysenck ?
do not condition easily or learn from their mistakes
67
Characteristics of neurotics according to Eysenck ?
nervous, jumpy and over anxious
they are also unstable in their behaviour - difficult to predict
68
According to Eysenck what is the criminal personality ?
neurotic extravert
69
What does Eysenck suggest about neurotic extraverts ?
they will score highly on the measure of psychoticism
70
Characteristics of the neurotic-extravert ?
- cold
- unemotional
- prone to aggression
71
According to Eysenck's theory how is personality linked to criminal behaviour ?
via the socialisation processes
72
What is the process of socialisation ?
when children are taught to become more able to delay gratification and be more socially orientated
73
What did Eysenck believe of people with high E and N scores nervous system ?
it was more difficult to condition and as a result they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial cues with anxiety and are more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presents itself
74
What is Eysenck's psychological test?
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
it locates respondents along the E and N dimensions to determine someones personality type
a scale was later introduced to measure psychoticism
75
Criticism of Eysenck's theory :
- the idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by a single personality type has been criticised - Moffit (1993) proposes several distinct types of adult male offenders based on timing of first offense and how long offending persists - out of date Eysenck is
- cultural bias - Bartol and Holanchock (1979)
looked into cultural differences - studied Hispanic and African Americans in a NY prison and divided into 6 groups depending of nature of offence and criminal history - found that all of the groups were less extraverted than the control group - Bartol suggested its because he investigated a different cultural group - questions generalisability of the criminal personality
- Eysencks theory recognises personality may have genetic basis - because of this it does suffer from some of the same limitations as genetic and neural explanations
76
Who was the first researcher to apply moral reasoning to criminal behaviour ?
Kohlberg
77
How does Kohlberg summarise peoples decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong ?
through a stage theory of moral development
78
What did Kohlberg base his theory on ?
peoples response to a series of moral dilemmas
79
What level of moral reasoning did Kohlberg find criminals to have?
a lower level
80
Kohlberg (1973):
using his moral dilemma technique found that a group of violent youths were significantly lower in their moral development than non-violent youths- even after controlling for social background
81
How is the pre-conventional level characterised ?
need to avoid punishment and gain reward
82
What do individuals who reason at higher levels tend to do ?
sympathise more with others and exhibit more conventional behaviours
83
What are cognitive distortions ?
errors or biases in people's information processing systems characterised by faulty thinking
84
Two examples of cognitive distortions ?
- hostile attribution bias
- minimalisation
85
What is hostile attribution bias ?
offenders may misread non-aggressive cues and this may trigger a disproportionate often violent act
86
How did Schönenberg and Justye (2014) study hostility attribution bias?
presented 55 violent offenders with an image of an emotionally ambiguos face - when compared with a control group the violent offenders were more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile
87
Roots of hostile attribution bias ?
may lie in childhood
Dodge and Frame (1982) showed children a video of an 'ambigious provocation' and children who had been previously identified as 'aggressive' interpretted situation as more hostile than a 'non-aggressive' child
88
What is minimalisation ?
an attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence
89
Study looking a minimalisation ?
Barbaree (1991) found among 26 incarcerated rapists 54% denied they had committed an offence and a further 40% minimised the harm they caused the victim
90
Criticisms of cognitive explanations for crime :
- descriptive not explanatory
may be useful in predicting reoffending, but they tend not to give us much insight into why the offender committed the crime in the first place
- Langdon (2010)
suggested intelligence may be a better predictor of criminality then moral reasoning - explains why groups of people with low intelligence are actually less likely to commit crime despite their lower levels of moral reasoning
91
Support of cognitive explanations for crime :
+ understanding the nature of cognitive distortions has proven beneficial in the treatment of criminal behaviour - studies suggest a reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly correlated with a reduced risk of reoffending
92
What does differential association theory suggest ?
individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour through association and interaction with different people
93
What did Sunderland do ?
set himself a task of developing a set of scientific principles that could explain all types of offending - discriminates between individuals who commit crime and those who do not
94
What does Sunderland's differential association theory suggest are the two factors in which criminality arise from ?
- learned attitudes towards crime
- learning of specific criminal acts
95
What does Sunderland propose cause criminality ?
if the number of pro-criminal messages a person acquires outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes
96
How does differential association suggest you predict criminality ?
mathematically if we have knowledge of the frequency, intensity and duration of which they have been exposed to deviant and non-deviant norms and values
97
What can differential association account for when learning criminal acts ?
why so many convicts released from prison go on to reoffend as they learn from their peers in prison and are surrounded by pro-criminal values
98
Support of differential association theory :
+ shift of focus
successful in moving emphasis away from biological accounts of crime - atavistic characteristics as well as those who explain offending as a product of individual weakness or immorality. Differential association theory draws attention to the fact that dysfunctional social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for criminality than dysfunctional people - more desirable because it offers a more realistic solution rather than eugenics or punishment
99
Criticisms of differential association theory :
- individual differences
not everyone who is exposed to criminal influences goes onto commit crime - danger with DAT of stereotyping individuals who come from impoverished crime-ridden backgrounds as 'unavoidably criminal' - ignores the fact that people may choose not to offend despite such influences
- difficult to test
difficult to see the number of pro-criminal attitudes a person has been exposed to - similarly the theory is built on the assumption that offending behaviour will take place when pro-criminal values outweigh non-criminal ones despite it being difficult to pinpoint the time the urge to offend is realised and criminal career triggered - undermining its scientific credibility
100
When is the superego formed ?
at the end of the phallic stage of development when a child resolves the Oedipus or Electra complex
101
Who does Freudian theory suggest has weaker super-ego and less morality ?
girls as they do not experience castration anxiety
102
What did Blackburn (1993) suggest about the superego ?
if it is deficient criminal behaviour is inevitable because the ID is not properly controlled by morality
103
What three types of inadequate superego did Blackburn propose ?
- weak superego
- devient superego
- over-harsh superego
104
What is the cause of a weak superego according to Blackburn ?
if the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage the child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification - making criminal behaviour more likely
105
What causes a deviant superego according to Blackburn ?
if the superego the child internalises has immoral values this would lead to offending behaviour
106
What causes a over-harsh superego according to Blackburn ?
individual being crippled with guilt and anxiety this may unconciously drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment
107
What does Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory state causes criminality ?
affectionless psychopathy
108
Criticisms of the psychodynamic explanations of offending :
- Bowlby's 44 thieves study that supports his theory has been heavily criticised - Bowlby also fails to draw a distinction between privation and deprivation and many thieves had experienced privation which is more serious
- Gender bias
Freudian theory suggests girls develop a weaker superego than boys because they don't experience castration anxiety - consequently their superego is less fully realised - implies females should be more prone to crime but this isn't supported by evidence or statistics of the male female ratio in prisons
- little evidence that children raised without the same sex parent are less law abiding as adults - contradicts Blackburns weak superego arguement. also if a child with a deviant parent goes onto commit crime this could be an influence of genetics not a deviant superego. Finally the concept criminal behaviours reflect are unconscious desire for punishment seems implausible as most offenders go to great lengths to conceal crime suggesting they are trying to avoid punishment at all cost
109
What are the 4 main reasons for custodial sentencing :
1. deterrence
2. incapacitation - taken out of society to prevent them from reoffending
3. retribution - revenge
4. rehabilitation
110
Psychological effects of custodial sentencing :
- stress and depression
- institutionalisation
- prisonisation
111
What is prisonisation ?
prisoners are socialised into adopting an 'inmate code'. Behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of the institution
112
What does recidivism refer to ?
reoffending rates
113
What do statistics produced by the Ministry of Justice in 2013 say about recidivism ?
57% of offenders will reoffend within a year of release
114
Where has some of the highest rates of recidivism ?
USA and UK
115
Where has the lowest rate of recidivism in Europe ?
Norway
'soft option'
more about rehabilitation
116
Criticisms of custodial sentencing :
- individual difference
although prisons may be psychologically damaging for many it cannot be assumed it is for all - factors such as length, reason and previous experience of incarceration may all be important mitigating factors - also people may have pre existing difficulties when convicted - therefore it is difficult to make a general conclusion that applies to every prisoner
- universities for crime
alongside legitimate skills incarceration may lead to learning 'tricks of the trade' from more experienced offenders - undermining attempts of rehabilitation and making reoffending more likely
- Davis and Raymond (2000) review custodial sentencing and conclude government ministers exaggerate the benefits of prison in a bid to appear tough on crime. The review suggested that prison does little to deter or rehabilitate - alternatives such as community service and restorative justice have been proposed instead
117
What are behaviourist modification programmes designed to do ?
reinforce obedient behaviours in inmates whilst punishing disobedience in the hope the latter dies out
118
How is behaviour modification made possible ?
through the use of a token economy
119
What is token economy based on ?
operant conditioning
120
What do tokens act as in token economy ?
secondary reinforcers
121
What does disobedience result in in token economy ?
withholding of tokens and associated privileges - form of punishment
122
Research example of token economy?
Hobbs and Holt (1976) introduced token economy with a group of young delinquents across 3 behavioural units - significant difference in positive behaviour compared to a non-token economy group
123
Support of token economy :
+ no need for expertise it is also cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have been established - however it does depend on a consistent approach from prison staff
124
Criticisms of token economy as a behaviour modification method for people in custody :
- In an institution were it is obligatory critics have suggested that a programme which may involve a withdrawal of 'privileges' such as exercise and contact with loved ones is ethically questionable
- Blackburn (1993) states it has 'little rehabilitive value' as any positive changes that occur in behaviour may be quickly lost when they are released - the token economy is at best good when establishing appropriate conduct within the prison but is unlikely to extend across another setting. This is because law abiding behaviour isn't always reinforced on the outside and rewards recieved for breaking the law may be more powerful
125
What does Novaco suggest about aggression ?
cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts
126
What are anger management programmes a form of ?
CBT
127
Three stages in an anger management programme :
- cognitive preparation
- skills acquisition
- application in practice
128
What does stage one cognitive preparation entail ?
this phase requires the offender to reflect on past experience and consider the typical patterns of their anger - the offender learns to identify those situations that act as a trigger to anger and if they way they interpret the situation is irrational - redefining it as non threatening and attempting to break the automatic response for the offender
129
What does stage two: skill acquisition entail ?
offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively. Techniques may be cognitive: positive self-talk or behavioural: assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively or physiological: methods of relaxation or/and meditation - promoting the idea that it is possible for them to be in control of their emotions
130
What does stage three: application in practise entail ?
offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills within a carefully monitored environment - involves the offender and therapist re-enacting scenarios that may have caused anger in the past. This requires commitment from offender and bravery from therapist - successful negotiation of role play would be met with positive reinforcement from a therapist
131
Research support for anger management programmes ?
Keen et al (2000)
studied progress made with young offenders aged 17 to 21 who took part in the programme. Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self control
132
What does an anger management course comprise of ?
eight two hour sessions, the first seven in a three-week period and last a month afterwards
133
Criticisms of anger management programmes :
- Blackburn (1993) points out anger management may have a noticeable effect in short term but there is little evidence it reduces recidivism in long term - may be because application of treatment relies heavily on role play which might not properly reflect all the possible triggers that could be present in a real life situation
- expensive to run as they require services of highly trained specialists and many prisons do not have the resources to run them - the success of anger management is also based on the commitment of the offender this creates a problem if the prisoners are uncooperative and apathetic
134
Support of restorative justice programmes :
+ 7 year gov funded research project by Shapland et al (2007) concluded that for every 1 pound spent on restorative justice would save the criminal justice system 8 pounds through reduced reoffending rates
135
Criticisms of restorative justice programmes :
- success may hinge upon the extent to which the offender feels remorse - as offenders may sign up to avoid prison or get a reduced sentence rather than a willingness to make amends - the victim may also have ulterior motives like to seek revenge - therefore it may not lead to a positive outcome when participants do not agree to take part with the best intentions
- specialists professionals are likely to be few and far between - also high drop out rates - meaning in practise it may not always be the most cost effective
- soft option
sentiments often echoed by politicians who are keen to keep electorates convinced they are tough on crime - Davies and Raymond 2000
136
What does restorative justice emphasis ?
the needs of the individual victim rather than the state
137
What is restorative justice ?
a process of managed collaboration between offender and victim based on healing and empowerment - a supervised meeting between 2 is organised and attended by a trained mediator in which the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the incident effected them. Similarly the offender is able to see the consequences of their actions - important part of rehabilitation process
138
Key features of restorative justice ?
- focused on acceptance of positive change for the offender
- not restricted to court rooms
- active rather than passive involvement
- focuses on positive outcomes for survivors and those who have engaged in wrongdoing
139
Variations of the restorative justice process :
- not always face to face
- sometimes financial restitution which may reflect psychological or actual harm done
- they may repair property damage themselves
- can function as an alternative to prison or an 'add on' to community service or as a incentive to reduce prison sentencing
140
What is the Restorative Justice Council (RJC) ?
an independent body whose role it is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative justice and support victims and specialist professionals in the field
141
Where does the RJC advocate to use RJ ?
-schools
-children's services
-workplace
-hospitals
-communities
-prisons
