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Higher Biology - 2021/2022 > Unit 3 - Neurology and Immunobiology > Flashcards

Unit 3 - Neurology and Immunobiology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the central nervous system made up of?

A

Spinal cord

Brain

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2
Q

What are the three types of neurons involved in the nervous system?

A

Sensory

Inter Motor

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3
Q

What does the sensory neuron do?

A

Takes impulses from receptors in the sense organs to the CNS

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4
Q

What does the inter neuron do?

A

Carries impulses across spinal cord quickly during reflex actions

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5
Q

What does the motor neuron do?

A

Takes impulses from the CNS to effector muscles and glands

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6
Q

How are messages sent along neurons?

A

Electrical impulses

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7
Q

What is the gap between neurons called?

A

Synapse

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8
Q

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous control?

A

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

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9
Q

How do sympathetic and parasympathetic division work?

A

Antagonistically (opposite actions)

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10
Q

How does the sympathetic affect the heart?

A

Increased heart rate and stroke volume

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11
Q

How does the parasympathetic affect the heart?

A

Decreases heart rate and stroke volume

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12
Q

How does the sympathetic affect breathing rate?

A

Increased rate and depth

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13
Q

How does the parasympathetic affect breathing rate?

A

Decreased rate and depth

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14
Q

How does the sympathetic affect peristalsis?

A

Decreased contractions

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15
Q

How does the parasympathetic affect peristalsis?

A

Increased contractions

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16
Q

How does the sympathetic affect intestinal secretions?

A

Decreased enzyme secretions

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17
Q

How does the parasympathetic affect intestinal secretions?

A

increased enzyme secretions

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18
Q

What are the three types of neural pathways?

A

Converging
Diverging
Reverberating

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19
Q

What does converging mean in terms of neural pathways?

A

Impulses sent from several neurons to one neuron

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20
Q

What is the purpose of converging neural pathways?

A

Increases sensitivity to excitatory or inhibitory signals which are responsible for whether or not the signal will be carried throughout the nervous system

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21
Q

Give an example of a converging neural pathway.

A

Eyes

Rod/cone cells sending light signals and converging into one signal around the optic nerve

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22
Q

What does diverging mean in terms of neural pathways?

A

When an impulse from one neuron travels to several neurons thus affecting more than one destination at the same time

Signals being sent to multiple sources to bring about a coordinated action/movement

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23
Q

When do diverging pathways occur?

A

IN tasks initiated by will
Signal from brain to move hand begins at one neuron being stimulated and ends with many neurons in the hand carrying out the action

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24
Q

Give an example of a diverging neuron pathway.

A

Walking, writing, lifting
Threading a needle
Typing

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25
Q

How do reverberating pathways work?

A

Neurons later in the pathway possess axon branches that form synapses with neurons earlier in the pathway
- Neurons at the end join to earlier neurons to create a continuous loop

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26
Q

What is the purpose of reverberating pathways?

A

Allows nerve impulses to be reused and repeatedly stimulated to create a continuous loop of action
Is stopped when process is no longer required

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27
Q

What is the difference between somatic and autonomic actions?

A

Somatic actions are voluntary actions/controlled by self. Brought about by skeletal muscle
Autonomic actions are involuntary actions controlled by the body. Brought about by smooth muscle/glands

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28
Q

What does antagonistic mean?

A

Work against each other / have opposite roles

One speeds things up, one slows things down

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29
Q

What is meant by localisation of brain functions in the cerebral cortex of the brain?

A

Specific functions are located in discrete areas/regions of the brain such as speech

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30
Q

Describe the function of converging neural pathways.

A

Allow low level stimuli to be summated causing an impulse to be passed on

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31
Q

Possible essay question : Describe the structure and functions of the autonomic nervous question (8)
What are the key things to include?

A

ANS controls involuntary responses
Impulses originate in the medulla
Made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic branches/systems
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems work antagonistically (or description)
Sympathetic system prepares body for fight or flight response
Parasympathetic system prepares the body for rest and digest response
Effect of the ANS on breathing rate/hart rate/peristalsis/secretions.

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32
Q

Where is their a localisation of brain functions?

A

In the cerebral cortex

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33
Q

What type of brain functions exist within the cerebral cortex?

A 
Motor area
Language area
Auditory area
Visual area
Somatosensory area
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34
Q

What causes a stroke/ how does it happen?

A

Blockage in the blood vessels result in cells dying and as a result tissue dies

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35
Q

How is the cerebrum split?

A

Into two hemispheres - right and left

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36
Q

What does the left hand side of the cerebrum do?

A

Processes information from the right field of vision and controls the right side of the body

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37
Q

What does the right hemisphere of the cerebrum do?

A

Processes information from the left field of vision and controls the left side of the body

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38
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

The bundle of nerve fibres that connect the two hemispheres of the cerebrum

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39
Q

How are the two hemispheres of the cerebrum interconnected?

A

By corpus callosum

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40
Q

What is the purpose of the corpus callosum?

A

Enables information to be transferred between each hemisphere quickly allowing the brain to function as a whole

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41
Q

What is a split brain?

A

When the corpus callosum is severed

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42
Q

What happens in patients with a split brain?

A

2 Hemispheres cannot transfer information between each other

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43
Q

Where is speech located in the brain?

A

Left hand side

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44
Q

What is the effect of a split brain?

A

If patient sees a word written with his right eye, then the visual is processed on the left hand side of the brain where the speech is located and the patient can see what he saw
If the patient sees the word with his left eye, it is processed on the right and as information cannot be passed to the left hemisphere, they cannot voice their vision

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45
Q

LEFT controls the RIGHT, RIGHT controls the LEFT

A
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46
Q

What are the three levels of memory in the brain?

A

Sensory
Short Term
Long Term

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47
Q

What are the three basic processes carried out for something to be committed to memory?

A

Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

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48
Q

What is classed as a memory?

A

Past events
Experiences
Knowledge
Thoughts

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49
Q

What are the three ways to extend short term memory?

A

Chunking
Rehearsal
Serial Position Effect

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50
Q

What is the capacity of short term memory?

A

7-10 Items, lasts 30 seconds

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51
Q

How can information in short term memory be lost?

A

Displacement

Decay

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52
Q

What is displacement in terms of memory?

A

Information being pushed out by new incoming information

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53
Q

What is decay in terms of memory?

A

Breakdown of briefly activated neuron connections

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54
Q

What is chunking?

A

Breaking something down to remember it / grouping small pieces of information together into single items

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55
Q

What is rehearsing?

A

Repeating it again and again – practising it

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56
Q

What is elaboration?

A

Elaboration is a form of deeper encoding leading to better retention. Essentially the more you know about something the more likely to remember it.

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57
Q

What is the capacity of long term memory?

A

Unlimited

Store info for a long time

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58
Q

What is the requirement for information in short term memory to go to long term memory?

A

Has to be encoded in the brain to a form that is easily stored and recalled

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59
Q

What ways can information be encoded?

A

Rehearsal
Organisation
Elaboration

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60
Q

How is the retrieval of information aided?

A

Through the use of contextual cues (setting, place, time, etc)

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61
Q

What is organisation in terms of memory?

A

Compartmentalising it

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62
Q

What is elaboration in terms of memory?

A

Adding value to a piece of information

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63
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

A

The most common form of dementia (mental deterioration)

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64
Q

What are the symptoms of Alzheimer’s?

A 
Confusion
Mood swings
Irritability
Aggression
Loss of long term memory
Loss of speech
Can’t recall recent memories
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65
Q

How does Alzheimer’s affect the brain?

A

Cell connections in the brain begin to breakdown – unknown cause
Think it might be to do with reduced synthesis of acetylcholine which is a neurotransmitter substance

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66
Q

What region of the brain co ordinates voluntary movements?

A

Cerebral cortex

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67
Q

What is the cerebral cortex and what is its function?

A

Outer layer of the cerebrum

Retrieves sensory information, co ordinates voluntary movements, recalls memories, makes decisions based on experience

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68
Q

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

A

Allows the exchange of information between the right and left hemispheres of the brain
Connects both halves

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69
Q

What region of the brain is in charge of involuntary control of intercostal muscles and diaphragm?

A

The medulla

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70
Q

What is meant by a memory ‘cue’?

A

A stimulus which helps retrieve information from long term memory/a link to the time and place in which the memory was created

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71
Q

What is the purpose of sensory memory?

A
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72
Q

What are the basic components of neurons?

A

Cell Body
Axon
Denrites

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73
Q

What neurons have insulation?

A

Sensory and motor

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74
Q

Where is the insulation of neurons and what form is it in?

A

Around the axon

Form = Myelin Sheath

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75
Q

What is the direction of electrical impulses in neurons?

A

Dendrites -> neuron -> cell body

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76
Q

What is myelination?

A

Process which enables a fatty layer to form around neurons by special glial cells in the body

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77
Q

When is myelination of neurons completed?

A

At adolescene

78
Q

What is the point in insulating the axon?

A

Ensures that the speed of electrical transmission from node to node is increaced

79
Q

How might unmyelinated neurons in babies and toddler’s affect them?

A

Delayed responses to stimuli

Can’t control body temperature

80
Q

What is the effect of the destruction of myelination?

A

Nerve impulses slow down/stop

81
Q

What are the symptoms of MS?

A 
fatigue
vision problems
numbness and tingling
muscle spasms, stiffness and weakness
mobility problems
pain
problems with thinking, learning and planning
depression and anxiety
82
Q

What is MS/What happens in MS?

A

Multiple Sclerosis
In MS, the immune system attacks the myelin sheath. This damages and scars the sheath, and potentially the underlying nerves

83
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

A

The protective layer that forms around nerves

84
Q

Can the myelin sheath be repaired?

A

Myelin is repaired or replaced by special cells in the brain called oligodendrocytes

85
Q

What is the long term prognosis of someone suffering from MS?

A

Is chronic
Disabilities
Decreased life span by 5-10 years
Decreased quality of life

86
Q

Is MS a degenerative condition? Why?

A
87
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A

The space between two neurons at a synapse

88
Q

What is the neuron before the synaptic cleft called?

A

Presynaptic neuron

89
Q

What is the neuron after the synaptic cleft called?

A

Postsynaptic neuron

90
Q

What are the messages relayed across the synaptic cleft called?

A

Chemical neurotransmitters

91
Q

Where are chemical neurotransmitters stored?

A

In the vesicle in the axon endings of the presynaptic neuron

92
Q

Why do vesicles have many mitochondria?

A

To produce, store and release chemical neurotransmitters

93
Q

What determines the type of signal response from the postsynaptic membrane?

A

The receptor present

94
Q

What are the two types of signals?

A

Excitatory

Inhibitory

95
Q

What must happen for an impulse to be carries on?

A

The minimum number of neurotransmitter molecules attach to a receptor in order to reach the membranes threshold and transmit the impulse

96
Q

How do synapses respond to weak stimuli?

A

Can either filter it out if it is a result of insufficient secretion of neurotransmitters
OR
the summation of weak stimuli can also trigger a response

97
Q

What kind of pathways are neurotransmitters involved in?

A

Pathways that directly affect a persona mood/behaviour

98
Q

What is the effect of dopamine and what pathway is it a part of?

A

Feelings of satisfaction and pleasure

Rewards pathways

99
Q

What is the effect of endorphins?

A

Released to bring about a reduction of pain or increased euphoria depending on the receptor the bind to

100
Q

How can endorphin production be increased?

A

Response to severe injury, prolonged/continuous exercise, stress and certain foods

101
Q

Why is it essential to remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft?

A

Prevent continuous stimulation of postsynaptic neurons

102
Q

What are the two ways to remove neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft?

A

Enzyme controlled degradation (with acetylcholine)

Reuptake into the presynaptic neuron (with noradrenaine)

103
Q

Give some reasons for the occurrence of a neurological disorder.

A

Over production of a particular neurotransmitter
Under production of a particular neurotransmitter
An imbalance in the production of neurotransmitters

104
Q

Give examples of some common neurological disorders.

A

Alzheimer’s
Schizophrenia
Depression

105
Q

How can neurological disorders be treated?

A

Drugs

106
Q

What are the three distinct categories of drugs used to treat neurological disorders?

A

Agonists
Antagonists
Inhibitors

107
Q

How do recreational drugs alters a persons state of consciousness?

A

By altering the neurotransmitters in the brain

108
Q

What category of drug do recreational drugs fall under?

A

Agonists or antagonists

109
Q

What neurological pathway do recreational drugs often effect?

A

The reward pathway of the brain

110
Q

How do agonistic drugs work?

A

Bind to and stimulate specific receptors mimicking the action of a neurotransmitter

111
Q

How do antagonistic drugs work?

A

Are chemicals that bind to specific receptors blocking the actions of a neurotransmitter

112
Q

Overall, what do antagonistic and agonistic drugs acta as?

A

Synapse

113
Q

What is drug addiction?

A

A chronic disease that causes the sufferer to compulsively seek out and use drugs regardless of the consequences

114
Q

What changes occur in the nervous system as a result of drug addiction?

A

Over-ridden self control
With agonistic drugs - desensitisation
With antagonistic drugs - sensitisation

115
Q

What happens in desensitisation?

A

the number of neurotransmitters decrease, become less sensitive to drugs increasing the drug tolerance

116
Q

What happens in sensitisation?

A

Increased number of neurotransmitters and sensitivity

117
Q

What changes occur to the nervous system as a result of drug tolerance?

A

Decrease in number and sensitivity of receptors as a result of repeated exposure to a drug acting as an agonist

118
Q

What causes addiction?

A

Repeated use of an antagonist drug that increases sensitivity and the number of receptors leading to a craving for more of the drug

119
Q

What causes tolerance?

A

Repeated use of an agonist drug which decreases the receptor sensitivity and numbers so more of the drug is needed to get a hit

120
Q

What is the purpose of the immune system?

A

To defend the body against infection or act to destroy the invading pathogen

121
Q

What are the the two main immune responses?

A

Non=specific and specific

122
Q

What is the purpose of epithelial cells?

A

Provide a physical barrier pf protection against foreign pathogens

123
Q

Where are epithelial cells found?

A

In the skin and the inner linings of the digestive and respiratory tracks

124
Q

Give examples of chemical secretions that play a role in the defence against foreign pathogens

A 
Mucus
Sweat
Tears (containing lysozyme)
Saliva ^
Stomach Acid
Sebum
125
Q

Why is the stomach lining not digested by protein digesting enzyme pepsin?

A

Pepsin is inactive in the stomach

Mucus provides protective layers

126
Q

What causes inflammation?

A

The release of chemical histamine from mast cells

127
Q

What does histamine do?

A

Promotes the vasodilation of blood vessels

Increases the permeability of surrounding capillaries

128
Q

Why does histamine vasodilate the blood vessels?

A

Increased blood flow -> accumulation of phagocytes and clotting elements at the site of infection

129
Q

What produces histamine?

A

Mast cells

130
Q

What are the signs of an inflammatory response?

A 
Heat
Redness
Swelling
Pain
Loss of function
131
Q

What are phagocytes?

A

Specialised white blood cells involved in non specific response

132
Q

How to phagocytes work?

A

Recognise foreign pathogens

Engulf and digest them using digestive enzymes contained in lysomes

133
Q

What is the ‘engulf and digest’ process done by phagocytes referred to as?

A

Phagocytosis

134
Q

How do phagocytes attract more phagocytes to a site of infection?

A

By releasing cytokine

135
Q

What is cytokine?

A

A protein signalling molecule

A chemical messenger

136
Q

How does the inflammatory response work?

A

Mast cells activate and release large quantities of histamine
Histamine vasodilates the blood vessels and the capillaries swell with blood
The additional blood in the vessels makes the area red and inflammed

137
Q

Where are mast cells found?

A

Connective tissue all around the body

138
Q

When is the immunes systems final line of defence brought on?

A

When non specific responses have been insufficient at controlling the spread of infection

139
Q

What brings about a specific immune response?

A

Lymphocytes in bone marrow

140
Q

What are the two main cell types which are involved in specific response?

A 
T Lymphocytes (T Cells)
B Lymphocytes (B Cells)
141
Q

Where do T cells mature?

A

In the Thymus

142
Q

Where do B cells mature?

A

In the Bone marrow

143
Q

What is the relationship between lymphocytes and antigens?

A

Lymphocytes are specific and can only be activated by one antigen

144
Q

What is an antigen?

A

An antibody generator

145
Q

What happens when an lymphocyte is activated?

A

Will divide repeatedly to form a population of clones

146
Q

What is a lymphocyte?

A

A type of white blood cell

147
Q

What activates T cell responses?

A

Fragments of foreign antigens displayed on phagocytic immune cells

148
Q

What is the purpose of T cells and how do they carry out their function?

A

Destroy infected body cells by causing apoptosis

149
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

A way of killing cells

150
Q

What happens when proteins are secreted from the T cell?

A

Self destructing enzymes are created within the infected cells leading to cell death

151
Q

What happens to the remains of an infected cell?

A

Cleared by phagocytic cells

152
Q

How are B cells activated?

A

By antigen presenting cells and produce antibodies against foreign antigens which are displayed on pathogens

153
Q

What is the structure of B cells and how is it suited to its purpose?

A

Y shaped protein molecules

Have a receptor binding site that is specific to one type of antigen on a pathogen

154
Q

How do B cells get rid of foreign antigens?

A

Antibodies bind to pathogens, inactivating them so that the antigen-antibody complex is cleared from the immune system by phagocytic cells.

155
Q

How long can it take for a full immune response to react to a new foreign invader?

A

Up to Seventeen days

156
Q

What happens when a foreign invader returns?

A

Antibody production is rapid due to memory cells
Antibody concentration is higher
Antibodies are maintained for longer in the bloodstream
Have a greater ability to bind to antigens

157
Q

Would would a graph for antibody production against time for the first and second attack?

A

Small peak, long build up

Tall peak, short build up

158
Q

How do T cells recognise self from non-self antigens?

A

Cells have a combination of cell surface proteins (an antigen signature) unique to a person
During maturation lymphocytes bearing a receptor for the bodies antigen signature are removed

159
Q

When do T cells tell the difference between self and non self cells?

A
160
Q

What are the consequences of a T cells being unable to tell the difference between self and non self cells?

A

Autoimmune disorders

161
Q

How is autoimmunity different to an allergic response??

A

Autoimmunity is an attack against the bodies own cells

Allergies are when the immune system mistakes a harmless cell for an invader and triggers a response to fight it

162
Q

Is there a difference between immunisation and vaccination? If yes, what is it?

A

Immunisation is when the body becomes immune to a disease

Vaccination is

163
Q

What is immunisation?

A

The process which brings about protection against a disease causing microorganism

164
Q

What are the two ways to achieve immunisation?

A

Naturally and Artificially

165
Q

How does natural immunisation occur?

A

Your body comes into contact with a pathogen and fights against the infection ensuring memory cells have formed for future encounters

166
Q

How does artificial immunisation occur?

A

Vaccinations

167
Q

What is in a vaccine?

A

A form of the foreign antigen

NOT the full disease causing the pathogen

168
Q

Why do vaccines not contain the full disease?

A

For safety and control purposes

169
Q

What kind of forms of antigen can be found in vaccines?

A

Dead pathogens
Inactivated pathogens/toxins
Fragments
Attenuated (weakened)

170
Q

Give examples of vaccines with dead pathogens.

A

Hepatitis A

Polio

171
Q

Give examples of vaccines with inactivated pathogens.

A

Diphtheria

Tetanus

172
Q

Give examples of vaccines with fragments.

A

Hepatitis B

HPV

173
Q

Give examples of vaccines with attenuated diseases.

A

MMR

Smallpox

174
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When the majority of a population are immunised so the risk of an unimmunised person coming into contact with the disease decreases and increases their protection against said disease

175
Q

When does herd immunity occur?

A

When a threshold limit of immunised people is met

176
Q

Why are mass vaccinations designed?

A

To establish herd immunity to a particular disease

177
Q

Why does mass vaccination not always work?

A

Factors such as poverty or people refusing a vaccine

178
Q

What is antigenic variation?

A

When genetic mutations and DNA recombination arise allowing new antigens to be displayed on pathogenic surfaces ensuring a sufficient disguise from the immune system

179
Q

Why does antigenic variation occur?

A

Is a survival technique o ensure selective advantage over previous strains of a disease causing pathogen

180
Q

What does antigenic variation apply primarily too?

A

Viruses adapting

181
Q

How does antigenic variation work?

A

Virus adapt and change their antigen signature so they cannot be recognised by memory cells

182
Q

How is antigenic variation combatted?

A

Updated vaccinations every year

183
Q

What has to happen before clinical trials?

A

Rigorous testing stages

184
Q

Where are vaccines usually first tested?

A

On cell cultures and on animal models

185
Q

Why are initial vaccine tests carried out on animals and cell cultures first?

A

To allow side affects to be determined

Can take up to 10 years

186
Q

How allows a clinical trial to be tested on humans?

A

Countries regulatory authority

187
Q

What is included in the design of clinical trials?

A

Group sizing
Randomisation of test subject
Placebo control
Double bind trial

188
Q

What is the point in randomisation in a clinical trial?

A

Ensures a reduced bias in the distribution of characteristics such as age and gender

189
Q

What is meant by a double bind procedure?

A

Neither the subject nor the researchers know which group of subjects are in (drug or placebo) to prevent bias

190
Q

What happens to the majority of new vaccinations?

A

Don’t pass the initial preclinical stage

Higher Biology - 2021/2022 (3 decks)

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