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Higher Human Biology > Unit 3- Neurobiology and Immunology > Flashcards

Unit 3- Neurobiology and Immunology Flashcards

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1
Q

what does a reverberating neural pathway allow for?

A

repeated stimulation

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2
Q

how could a weak stimuli pass on the signal?

A

if the the post synaptic neuron were to receive several smaller stimuli
Aka SUMMATION

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3
Q

what does the CNS consist of?

A

the brain and the spinal cord

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3
Q

what does the PNS consist of?

A

the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems

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4
Q

what do peripheral nerves do?

A

allow information to be sent to and from the CNS

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5
Q

what does the somatic nervous system do?

A

takes messages from the sense organs to the muscles and glands

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6
Q

how does the somatic nervous system work?

A

it takes impulses along SENSORY NEURONES to the CNS and along MOTOR NEURONES to the muscles and glands

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7
Q

what are the 2 systems that make up the autonomic nervous system?

A

sympathetic system and parasympathetic system

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8
Q

what does the sympathetic system do?

A

prepare the body for action (fight or flight)

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9
Q

describe what the sympathetic system does to the heart rate, breathing rate, peristalsis and intestinal secretions

A

increased heart rate
increased breathing rate (allowing bronchioles to take in more air)
decreased peristalsis
decreased intestinal secretions

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10
Q

describe what the parasympathetic nervous system does to the heart rate, breathing rate, peristalsis and intestinal secretions

A

decreased heart rate
decreased breathing rate
increased peristalsis
increased intestinal secretions

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11
Q

what does the parasympathetic nervous system do?

A

return the body back to normal (rest and digest)

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12
Q

which gland is the only gland to be solely controlled by the sympathetic system?

A

the adrenal gland

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13
Q

what are the 3 types of neural pathway?

A

converging
diverging
and reverberating

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14
Q

what is a converging neural pathway?

A

many nerve impulses from several neurones travel to one

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15
Q

what does a converging neural pathway cause?

A

the sensitivity to excitatory and inhibitory signals is increased

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16
Q

what is an example of a converging neural pathway?

A

rods and cones in the eye

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17
Q

what is a diverging neural pathway?

A

impulse from one neuron splits and travels to several neurones

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20
Q

What is the axon?

A

A single nerve fibre that carries impulses away from the cell body

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21
Q

what does a diverging neural pathway cause?

A

the impulse can affect more than one destination at a time

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21
Q

what is an example of a reverberating neural pathway?

A

breathing

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22
Q

what is an example of a diverging neural pathway?

A

temperature control

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23
Q

what is a reverberating neural pathway?

A

neurones later in the pathway create synapses with neurones earlier in the pathway creating loops

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25
Q

What are the three main parts of neurone structure?

A

Cell body
Axon
Dendrites

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26
Q

what is the PNS?

A

the peripheral nervous system

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27
Q

what is the cerbral cortex?

A

the outside layer of the brain which is split into two cerebral hemispheres
it is the centre for conscious thought where memories are recalled and what alters behaviour in light of experience

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27
Q

what are the 3 stages of memory?

A

encoding, storage and retrieval of information

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28
Q

what are the 3 types of memory?

A

sensory memory
short term memory
long term memory

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28
Q

what is retained in the sensory memory?

A

all visual and auditory input

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30
Q

what happens during drug addiction?

A

antagonists block specific receptors causing the nervous system to compensate by INCREASING THE NUMBER and SENSITIVITY of these receptors

leading to sensitisation

this leads to the individual craving more of the drug

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32
Q

what is the serial position effect?

A

that items at the start of a list and items at the end are remembered more than those in the middle

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32
Q

how are items lost in the short term memory?

A

by either displacement (pushed out by new information) or decay (breakdown of memory trace)

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33
Q

what is encoded from the sensory memory to the short term memory?

A

only selected images and sounds

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34
Q

what are the two ways to increase the capacity of short term memory?

A

chunking and rehearsal

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37
Q

What is a randomised clinical trial?

A

All relevant details are entered into the computer and the computer randomly sorts the members into two groups to reduce bias in the distribution of age and gender

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38
Q

how much information can the long term memory hold ?

A

unlimited

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39
Q

how is information transferred from STM to LTM?

A

rehersal, organisation and elaboration

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40
Q

what is the CNS?

A

the central nervous system

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40
Q

what does transfer between the two cerebral hemispheres occur through?

A

the corpus callosum

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42
Q

how is retrieval of items from the LTM aided?

A

the use of contextual cues related to the time and place that were present when information was encoded

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43
Q

describe the inflammatory response.

A

injury

mast cells become activated and release large quantities of histamine

histamine causes vasodilation and the capillaries to become more permeable

increased blood flow leads to accumulation of phagocytes and clotting factors

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44
Q

What are the 3 types of neuron?

A

Sensory neurones
Inter neurones
Motor neurones

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46
Q

What is the function of the cell body in a neurone?

A

Contains nucleus so is the control centre

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47
Q

What is the function of the dendrites?

A

To pass impulses to the cell body

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48
Q

What is the myelin sheath?

A

A layer of fatty material that insulates the axon

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49
Q

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

A

To greatly increase the speed of impulse conduction

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49
Q

what is the region of contact between the axon ending of the pre synaptic neuron and the dendrites of the post synaptic neuron called?

A

the synapse

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50
Q

What is myelination and when does it occur?

A

The development of myelin and it occurs from birth to adolescence

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50
Q

what is the gap between the pre synaptic neuron and the post synaptic neuron called?

A

the synaptic cleft

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51
Q

What is the result of myelination occurring until adolescence?

A

Response to stimuli in the first 2 years of life is not as rapid or coordinated

51
Q

what are neurotransmitters stored in in synapses?

A

vesicles

52
Q

What do certain diseases do to the myelin sheath?

A

Destroy it causing loss of coordination

53
Q

Why is it important to use a large group size for a clinical trial?

A

To reduce experimental error and improve statistical significance

55
Q

what is chunking?

A

breaking the information down into meaningful units to make it easier to remember

56
Q

how does direct re absorption work when reuptaking neurotransmitter?

A

neurotransmitter are absorbed directly without being broken down

57
Q

how do neurotransmitters work at synapses?

A

when an impulse passes through the PRESYNAPTIC NEURON the it stimulates several vesicles to move to the synapse and fuse with the membrane

the neurotransmitters are then released across the synaptic cleft by diffusion and bind with receptors on the POST SYNAPTIC NEURON

58
Q

what are the areas of the cerebral cortex?

A

sensory areas
motor areas
association areas

59
Q

what are the two ways neurotransmitters are reuptaken at synapses?

A

enzyme degradation

direct re absorption

60
Q

name 4 neurotransmitters

A

acetlycholine
noradrenaline
endorphins
dopamine

61
Q

what are endorphins?

A

neurotransmitters that stimulate neurones involved in reducing the intensity of pain

62
Q

why can the short term memory perform simple cognitive tasks?

A

the short term memory can process data to a limited extent, as well as store it, this is known as the working memory

62
Q

what determines whether or not a signal is excitatory or inhibitory?

A

receptors on the post synaptic neuron

62
Q

what must be acquired for a signal to be transmitted?

A

a certain threshold of neurotransmitter

66
Q

how do endorphins reduce the intensity of pain?

A

By combining with receptors at synapses blocking the transmissions of the pain signal

67
Q

where are endorphins produced?

A

the hypothalamus

68
Q

what are increased levels of endorphins in response to?

A

severe injury
prolonged and continuous exercise
physical and emotional stress
certain foods such as chocolate

69
Q

what are increased levels of endorphins linked to?

A

the feelings of pleasure obtained from:
eating
sex
prolonged exercise

70
Q

what is dopamine?

A

neurotransmitters that induce feelings of pleasure by stimulating the reward pathway which reinforces certain behaviour to satisfy a need that is beneficial such as hunger or thirst

71
Q

give 2 examples of neurotransmitter related disorders

A

alzheimers and schizophrenia and depression

72
Q

how can neurotransmitter related disorders be treated?

A

by agonist or antagonist drugs

73
Q

how do agonist drugs work?

A

they bind to and stimulate specific receptors on postsynaptic neurone, mimicking action of naturally occurring neurotransmitters triggering normal cellular response

74
Q

how do antagonist drugs work?

A

they bind to specific receptors on postsynaptic neurone and block the action of the neurotransmitter, inhibiting normal cellular response

75
Q

how do inhibitor drugs work?

A

act by preventing the removal of the normal transmitter causing an enhanced effect

76
Q

how to recreational drugs act?

A

like both agonists and antagonists

76
Q

how is drug tolerance caused?

A

the repeated use of drugs that act as agonists

77
Q

in individuals what do recreational drugs affect and alter?

A

mood (happier, more confident, aggressive)

cognition (cant carry out complex mental tasks such as problem solving and decision making)

perception (misinterpretation of stimuli)

behaviour (stay awake for longer, talk endlessly about themselves)

77
Q

what happens during drug tolerance?

A

agonists stimulate specific receptors causing the nervous system to compensate by DECREASING THE NUMBER and SENSITIVITY of these receptors

leading to desensitisation

this leads to the individual needing to take more of the drug to get an effect

78
Q

what do recreational drugs do to the reward circuit?

A

affect them and cause them do be overstimulated

78
Q

what are the 2 types of non-specific body defences?

A

physical and chemical defences

79
Q

how is drug addiction caused?

A

the repeated of drugs that act as ANTAGONISTS

80
Q

what is the physical non-specific body defence?

A

closely packed epithelial cells found on the surface of skin and lining the body’s digestive system and respiratory systems

offer a physical barrier against bacteria and viruses

81
Q

what is the chemical non-specific body defence?

A

secretions including tears, saliva, mucus and stomach acid are produced against invading pathogens

83
Q

what is the name of the response to a cut or physical injury?

A

the inflammatory response

84
Q

What is a placebo controlled clinical trial?

A

Members of the control group are given a placebo which allows a valid comparison to be made

85
Q

what are cytokines?

A

protein molecules released by phagocytes which attract more phagocytes to the site of infection.

86
Q

describe phagocytosis

A

phagocytes recognise pathogens and engulf them

they then destroy them using digestive enzymes that are stored in lysosomes

87
Q

what must happen after neurotransmitter bind with receptors on the post synaptic neuron?

A

re uptake of neurotransmitter to prevent continuous stimulation.

87
Q

what are lymphocytes and how do they work?

A

white blood cells involved in the specific immune system

they work by responding to specific pathogens because they have a specific type of membrane receptor which is specific for one antigen

87
Q

what are antigens?

A

molecules located on the surface of cells which trigger the immune response

88
Q

how is a clonal population achieved?

A

the binding of the membrane receptor and the antigen leads to the lymphocyte repeatedly dividing resulting in a clonal population of identical lymphocytes

89
Q

what are the 2 types of lymphocytes?

A

b lymphocytes and t lymphocytes

90
Q

how do b lymphocytes work?

A

they produce antibodies which bind to antigens inactivating the pathogen.
this antibody-antigen complex can then be destroyed by phagocytosis

91
Q

how do b lymphocytes result in allergies?

A

b cells respond to antigens on substances that are harmless to the body resulting in an allergic reaction.

92
Q

how do t lymphocytes work?

A

t lymphocytes destroy infected cells by recognising antigens and inducing apoptosis

94
Q

What is the role of glial cells?

A

To produce myelin and support the neurones

97
Q

what are antibodies?

A

y shaped proteins that have receptor binding sites which are specific to a particular antigen

98
Q

what is apoptosis?

A

programmed cell death

99
Q

how does apoptosis work?

A

t lymphocytes attach to infected cells and release a protein which diffuses into the cell causing production of self-destructive enzymes

the remains are removed by phagocytosis

100
Q

what allows t lymphocytes to distinguish between self and non-self?

A

specific surface proteins

101
Q

in terms of t lymphocytes what does immune system regulation failure lead to?

A

t cell immune response to self-antigens meaning they attack the body’s own cells resulting in an autoimmune disease

102
Q

what are 2 examples of autoimmune diseases?

A

rheumatoid arthritis and type 1 diabetes

103
Q

What is the primary response?

A

When a person is infected by a pathogen or toxin and their body produced antibodies for the first time

104
Q

How are memory cells formed?

A

Some t and b lymphocytes produced in the primary response survive long term as memory cells

105
Q

What is the role of memory cells?

A

To allow for a secondary response

Meaning that they give rise to a new clone of lymphocytes producing a rapid and greater antibody production so the invading pathogen is destroyed before the individual develops symptoms

105
Q

What does AIDS stand for?

A

Acquired immune deficiency disease

106
Q

What does HIV stand for?

A

Human immunodeficiency virus

107
Q

How does HIV work?

A

By attacking and destroying t lymphocytes by hiding in them causing a depletion of their numbers

108
Q

how does enzyme degradation work when reuptaking neurotransmitters?

A

enzymes break down neurotransmitter which is the reabsorbed and turned back into new neurotransmitters

109
Q

What is meant by immunisation?

A

The process by which a person develops immunity to a disease causing organism

110
Q

what do mast cells produce?

A

histamine

112
Q

How can immunity be acquired?

A

By vaccination using antigens from an infectious pathogen to create memory cells

113
Q

What are antigens from infectious pathogens mixed with to create a vaccine?

A

An adjuvant

114
Q

What is an adjuvant?

A

A chemical mixed with the antigen to increase the immune response

115
Q

What are the forms of pathogen used in vaccines?

A

Inactivated pathogen
Dead pathogen
Parts of pathogen
Weakened pathogen

116
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When a large percentage of the population are immunised which helps reduce the spread of diseases

Protecting non immune people as there is less chance they will come into contact with an infected individual

117
Q

What is the herd immunity threshold?

A

The percentage of the population that must be vaccinated to reach herd immunity status

118
Q

What does the herd immunity threshold depend on?

A

The type of disease
Effectiveness of the vaccine and
Density of the population

119
Q

When do difficulties arise in vaccine programmes?

A

When widespread vaccination isn’t possible due to poverty in the developing world and
A percentage of the developed world rejecting vaccines

120
Q

What is antigenic variation?

A

When some pathogens can change their antigens meaning memory cells are not as effective against them

121
Q

What does HIV become if left untreated?

A

AIDS

121
Q

What must vaccines and drugs go through before being licensed for use in the public?

A

A clinical trial on humans

122
Q

What are the 3 different types of clinical trial?

A

Placebo controlled

Double blind

Randomised

123
Q

What is a double blind trial?

A

Neither members non doctors know whether they are receiving the active ingredient or the placebo to prevent bias

124
Q

What does AIDS do to an individual?

A

Weakens their immune system making the person more vulnerable to infections

Higher Human Biology (3 decks)

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