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Higher Human Biology > Unit 1- Physiology and Health > Flashcards

Unit 1- Physiology and Health Flashcards

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1
Q

In the reproductive system what do hormones control?

A

The onset of puberty
Sperm production
The menstrual cycle

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2
Q

What is the function of testosterone?

A

To stimulate sperm production and activate the accessory glands

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3
Q

What arteries are most commonly affected by PVD?

A

The arteries in the legs

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4
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

A gland hanging from the base of the brain.

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5
Q

Describe the process of fertilisation

A

A mature ovum is released into the oviduct where it is fertilised by sperm

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6
Q

Describe the process of puberty onset.

A

The hypothalamus decreases a released hormone targeting the pituitary.

The pituitary the produces 2 hormones

FSH and LH in women

And

FSH and ICSH in men

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7
Q

What is ICSH

A

Interstitial cell stimulating hormone

Stimulates testosterone production

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8
Q

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

A

To secrete hormones that control many other glands in the body.

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9
Q

What does haploid mean?

A

1 single set of chromosomes

Sex cells

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10
Q

How is sperm production controlled hormonally?

A

Negative feedback of FSH and ICSH

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11
Q

What is FSH?

A

Follicle Stimulating Hormone.

Develops follicle in women
And
Stimulates sperm production in men

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12
Q

Approximately how long is the average menstrual cycle?

A

28 days

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13
Q

What marks the first day of the menstrual cycle?

A

The first day of menstruation

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14
Q

What are the 2 phases of the menstrual cycle called?

A

Follicular and luteal phase

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15
Q

Describe the stages of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle

A

FSH is released, stimulating the development of the follicle in the ovary.

The follicle secretes oestrogen, which stimulates the proliferation of the endometrium and affects the consistency of the cervical mucus making it more easily penetrated by sperm

Hugh levels of oestrogen trigger a surge in LH which is the direct cause of ovulation

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16
Q

What’s different about the end of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle of fertilisation occurs?

A

The corpus luteum doesn’t degenerate and progesterone levels remain high to maintain the foetus.

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17
Q

What is the name given to a male fertility?

A

Continuous

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18
Q

What 2 ways can a female fertile period be calculated?

A

0.5 degree temperature increase

Thinning of the cervical mucus

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19
Q

What are the 4 types of infertility treatments?

A

Stimulating ovulation drugs

Artificial insemination

Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)

In vitro fertilisation (IVF)

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20
Q

Why does diastole mean?

A

The chambers of the heart relax

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21
Q

What does diploid mean?

A

2 sets of chromosomes

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23
Q

Describe how stimulating ovulation drugs work

A

Drugs given to prevent negative feedback of oestrogen on FSH or drugs given to mimic FSH and LH to cause super ovulation

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24
Q

Describe the process of artificial insemination

A

Semen samples are collected over a period of time and inserted into the female reproductive tract

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25
Q

Describe the process of ICSI

A

Head of sperm is drawn into a needle and injected directly into the ova

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26
Q

Describe the process of IVF

A

Done in conjunction with ovulation drugs

Several eggs are removed, mixed with sperm.

Fertilised zygotes are incubated till around 8 cells and implanted into the uterus

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27
Q

What is the use fo PGD

A

To identify single gene disorders and chromosomal abnormalities

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28
Q

How do barrier methods of contraception work?

A

Cause a physical barrier between sperm and egg

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29
Q

How does an IUD work?

A

I steered into the uterus by a doctor and changed the lining of the uterus and oviduct stopping the movement of sperm and eggs

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30
Q

Where do the SL valves sit?

A

Between the ventricles and arteries

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31
Q

What is the morning after pill and how does it work?

A

An emergency contraceptive containing a high dose of progesterone preventing ovulation or implantation if ovulation has already occurred

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32
Q

What triggers the pituitary gland?

A

The hypothalamus

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33
Q

What does antenatal screening do?

A

Identifies risks of a disorder so further tests can be carried out and prenatal diagnosis can be given.

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34
Q

What is the main antenatal screening?

A

Ultrasound

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35
Q

What are the 2 types of ultrasound scan?

A

Dating scan and anomaly scan

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36
Q

What does a dating scan check for?

A

Babies due date

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37
Q

What is the name given to female fertility?

A

Cyclical- lasting about 1-2 days

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38
Q

When can a dating scan take place?

A

8-14 weeks

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39
Q

What does an anomaly scan check for?

A

Physical abnormalities with the foetus

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40
Q

Describe the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle

A

The empty follicle develops into the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone

Progesterone promotes further vascularisation of the endometrium

High levels of oestrogen and progesterone have a negative feedback control on the pituitary, inhibiting FSH and LH production so no new follicles

Lack of LH causes the corpus luteum to degenerate

Low levels of progesterone cause menstruation to occur because the endometrium can’t be maintained

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41
Q

What is a dating scan done in conjunction with?

A

Testing for chemical markers

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42
Q

Apart from ultrasound scans what’s the other type of antenatal screening?

A

Blood and urine tests

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43
Q

How does the combined contraceptive pill work?

A

By containing synthetic progesterone and oestrogen mimicking negative feedback preventing FSH and LH release

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44
Q

What do blood and urine tests do ?

A

Check levels of chemical markers in the blood or urine to indicate the possibility of a condition.

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45
Q

What can happen if blood and urine tests are done too early

A

It can result in a false positive

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46
Q

What can an irregular chemical marker concentration lead to?

A

A diagnostic test

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47
Q

What happens to expectant parents before diagnostic tests are done?

A

The risk factors are discussed and also their decisions they’re likely to make if the results are positive.

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48
Q

Describe the process of amniocentesis

A

A sample of amniotic fluid is taken using a fine needle through the belly and uterine wall. The cells are then cultured and karyotyped to check for chromosomal disorders.

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49
Q

How would you identify autosomal recessive inheritance?

A

Relatively rare

May skip generations

Males and females affected in equal number.

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50
Q

What is a diagnostic test?

A

A definitive test used to establish whether or not a person has a certain condition

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51
Q

Name 2 types of diagnostic test

A

Amniocentesis

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

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52
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

Individual chromosomes arranged as homologous pairs.

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53
Q

What happens if an atheroma ruptures?

A

The damage releases clotting factors that activate the formation of a blood clot/thrombus

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54
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

Volume of blood pumped through the ventricle per minute

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55
Q

Compare amino and cvs

A

Amniocentesis has a Lower risk of miscarriage but is carried out later in pregnancy whereas cvs is a slightly higher risk of miscarriage but can be carried out earlier.

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56
Q

How would you identify sex linked recessive inheritance?

A

Usually:

Many more males affected than females

Shown as X^h X^h or X^h Y

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57
Q

How is PKU tested for?

A

Heel prick test

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58
Q

How would you identify autosomal incomplete dominant inheritance?

A

Usually:

Full expression is rare

Partial expression is more common

Full sufferer has both parents with partial

Males and females affected in equal number

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59
Q

What causes plasma to be forced out of the capillaries into the fluid surrounding the cells?

A

High pressure blood coming from the arterioles

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60
Q

What is screened for in post natal screening?

A

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

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61
Q

What is PKU?

A

Phenylketonuria

A substitution mutation which causes the enzyme which converts phenylalanine into tyrosine to be non functional

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62
Q

What does systole mean?

A

The chambers of the heart contract

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63
Q

How is PKU treated?

A

A restricted diet low in phenylalanine

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64
Q

What is the heart rate?

A

Number of heart beats per minute

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65
Q

What hormone increases heart rate when stressed or during exercise?

A

Adrenaline

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66
Q

Where do the AV valves sit?

A

Between the atria and ventricles

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67
Q

What is PGD

A

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

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68
Q

How do you calculate cardiac output?

A

Heart rate x stroke volume

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69
Q

Where is the SAN located?

A

The wall of the right atrium

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70
Q

How do the SL and AV valves open and close?

A

Due to pressure changes

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71
Q

How can you listen to the heart sounds?

A

With a stethoscope

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72
Q

What sets the rate of cardiac contraction?

A

The SAN(sinoatrial node) or pacemaker

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73
Q

Where does the heart beat originate?

A

Within itself

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74
Q

How does the mini contraceptive pill work?

A

Contains a high dose of progesterone which causes the thickening of the cervical mucus, stopping sperm

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75
Q

What is the order of blood circulation?

A

Heart——>Arteries——>capillaries——>veins——>heart

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76
Q

What causes ventricular systole?

A

Electrical impulses travelling down the centre of the heart and up the ventricle walls

77
Q

What is the SAN made of?

A

Auto rhythmic cells

78
Q

What causes atrial systole?

A

Electric leg impulses sent from the SAN across the atria to the AVN

79
Q

Where is the AVN located?

A

The base of the atria

80
Q

What is the wave on an ECG called?

A

PQRST wave

81
Q

What does a T wave represent?

A

Recovery of ventricle walls

82
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

Type of lipid found in cell membranes

83
Q

Is cholesterol on its own soluble or insoluble?

A

Insoluble

84
Q

What do the electrical impulses generate in the heart?

A

A current that can be detected by an electrocardiogram (ECG)

85
Q

What is LH

A

Lutenising hormone

Stimulates ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum

86
Q

How would you identify autosomal dominant inheritance?

A

In every generation

Each sufferer has an affected parent

Will die out and then not reappear

Males and females affected in equal number

87
Q

What would a doctor do if glucose was present in the urine(positive indicator test)?

A

Do a glucose tolerance test

88
Q

What are the names of the 2 types of nerves that secrete neurotransmitters to control heart rate?

A

Sympathetic accelerator nerves

Slowing parasympathetic nerves

89
Q

What does a QRS wave represent?

A

Ventricular systole

90
Q

What alters the heart rate?

A

Hormonal and nervous activity

91
Q

What is the name given to the nervous system the heart is supplied by?

A

The autonomic nervous system

92
Q

What regulates the SAN?

A

Control centres in the medulla through antagonistic action

93
Q

What do the sympathetic accelerator nerves release and what does it do?

A

Noradrenaline to increase heart rate

95
Q

What is blood pressure?

A

Friction between the blood and the blood vessel

96
Q

What happens to blood pressure during ventricular systole?

A

Increases

97
Q

What happens to blood pressure during diastole?

A

Decreases

98
Q

What is blood pressure measured using?

A

A sphygmomanometer

99
Q

Describe the process of blood pressure being taken

A

The cuff inflates to stop blood flow in the upper arm

First reading taken when cuff starts to deflate and blood starts to flow (pulse detected) — systolic pressure

Second reading taken when cuff continues to deflate and blood flows freely (no pulse detected) — diastolic pressure

100
Q

What is a typical blood pressure reading?

A

120/80 Mmhg (millimetres of mercury)

101
Q

What name is given to chronic high blood pressure?

A

Hypertension

102
Q

What does hypertension increase the risks for?

A

CVD (cardiovascular disease)

103
Q

Why happens to blood pressure as blood moves away from the heart?

A

Decreases

104
Q

What is a lumen?

A

Central canal of blood vessels

105
Q

Name the structures in an artery

A

Outer layer of connective tissue Containing elastic fibres

Thick smooth muscle layer

Narrow lumen

Inner endothelial lining

107
Q

What do the elastic fibres in it’s walls allow it to do?

A

Stretch and recoil to accommodate for the surge of blood after each contraction of the heart

108
Q

What does the smooth muscle in an artery allow it to do?

A

Contract and relax to allow it to Vasoconstrict and vasodilate to control blood flow

109
Q

What do veins do?

A

Carry blood back to the heart

110
Q

Name the structures in a vein?

A

Outer layer of connective tissue containing elastic fibres

Much thinner smooth muscle layer

Wide lumen

Inner endothelial lining

Valves

111
Q

What do the valves in veins do?

A

Prevent back flow of blood

112
Q

Why causes heart sounds?

A

The opening and closing of the AV and SL valves

113
Q

What are capillaries?

A

Exchange vessels where materials are exchanged with tissues due to 1 cell thick walls

114
Q

What is fluid called that surrounds cells?

A

Tissue fluid

115
Q

Where is cholesterol synthesised?

A

In all cells but 25% of it is made in the liver from saturated fats

116
Q

What is the process of plasma being forced out of capillaries into tissue fluid called?

A

Pressure filtration

117
Q

How does tissue fluid differ from blood plasma?

A

There is no proteins in tissue fluid due to them being too big to fit through capillary walls

118
Q

When can an anomaly scan be done?

A

Between 18-20 weeks

119
Q

Describe the process of CVS

A

A sample of placental cells is removed through the vagina. These cells are then cultured and then karyotyped to check for chromosomal disorders.

120
Q

What is diffusion?

A

Movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration

121
Q

What happens to soluble food molecules,oxygen and ions in the tissue fluid?

A

Diffuse into nearby cells

122
Q

What do cells diffuse into the tissue fluid?

A

Carbon dioxide and urea

123
Q

What happens to tissue fluid after exchange of materials?

A

Much of it returns to the blood through osmosis

124
Q

What is the excess tissue fluid that is absorbed into lymphatic vessels called?

A

Lymph

125
Q

What does the lymphatic system do with the lymph absorbed from excess tissue fluid?

A

Return it to the circulatory system

126
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

Formation of an Atheroma

127
Q

What is an atheroma?

A

Build up of fatty material beneath the endothelium

128
Q

What happens as an atheroma grows?

A

The artery thickens and loses its elasticity
The diameter of the lumen becomes reduces and blood flow is restricted
Raises blood pressure

129
Q

What is a thrombus?

A

Blood clot in a blood vessel

130
Q

What is thrombosis?

A

The formation of a thrombus

131
Q

What is atherosclerosis the food cause of?

A

Angina
Heart attack
Stroke
PVD

132
Q

What does the fatty material that forms an atheroma consist of?

A

Mainly cholesterol, fibrous material and calcium

133
Q

What is blood clotting?

A

Protective device triggered by damage to cells in order to prevent blood loss.

134
Q

What does thrombin do?

A

Turn fibrinogen (soluble protein) into fibrin (insoluble protein)

135
Q

What do the parasympathetic nerves release and what does it do?

A

Acetylcholine to decrease heart rate

136
Q

What happens if an embolus blocks a blood vessel?

A

Reduced blood flow or cut it off completely

137
Q

What do fibrin threads do?

A

Form a mesh work structure that clots blood, seals the wound and provides a scaffold for the formation of scar tissue

138
Q

What what would thrombosis in an artery in the brain cause?

A

A stroke

139
Q

What would thrombosis in a coronary artery lead to?

A

A myocardial infarction(heart attack)

140
Q

What is it called if an embolus blocks an artery?

A

Embolism

141
Q

Where does the SAN send electrical impulses?

A

Across the atria to the AVN (atrioventricular node)

141
Q

Where does the electrical impulse go after the AVN?

A

Down the centre wall of the heart and up the walls of the ventricles

141
Q

What do arteries do?

A

Carry blood away from the heart

141
Q

What is an embolus?

A

A thrombus that breaks loose from the blood vessel wall

143
Q

What happens to blood glucose levels when a person is experiencing a fight or flight response?

A

Adrenaline inhibits insulin secretion and promotes glucagon secretion which raises the blood glucose levels giving the body the added energy it may need

144
Q

What is a use for cholesterol?

A

Used to make sex hormones

Basic component in cell membranes

145
Q

What is an indicator for diabetes?

A

Glucose in urine found by testing with clinistix

146
Q

What is CVD?

A

Cardiovascular disease

147
Q

What is PVD?

A

Peripheral vascular disease is narrowing of the arteries due to atherosclerosis in arteries other than those to the hear of brain

148
Q

What’s is stroke volume?

A

Volume of blood expelled by each ventricle on contraction

149
Q

What would a diet high in cholesterol result in?

A

Higher blood cholesterol levels and a higher risk of heart disease.

150
Q

Why do PVD sufferers experience pain?

A

Due to a limited supply of oxygen which causes cells to undergo anaerobic respiration, resulting in a build up of lactic acid.

151
Q

What can be the result of a thrombus breaking free in vein?

A

It could become lodged in the Lungs and cause a pulmonary embolism.

152
Q

How does cholesterol travel around the body?

A

Attached to proteins to make soluble lipoproteins.

153
Q

What are the 2 major transport lipoproteins?

A

High density lipoproteins (HDL)

Low density lipoproteins (LDL)

154
Q

What are HDL’s?

A

High density lipoproteins (good cholesterol)

155
Q

What do HDL’s do?

A

Transport transport excess cholesterol from body cells to liver for elimination

Preventing a build up of cholesterol in the blood stream

156
Q

How is obesity caused most commonly?

A

A high in fat diet and a lack of exercise

157
Q

What are LDL’s?

A

Low density lipoproteins (bad cholesterol)

158
Q

What do LDL’s do?

A

Transport cholesterol from liver to body cells

To LDL receptors where it is taken in and the cholesterol is used

159
Q

What happens to the the LDL’s after body cells have an efficient store of cholesterol?

A

Negative feedback is triggered to stop the production of new LDL receptors

Excess LDL’s are left circulating

Endothelial cells take in the LDLs and cholesterol is deposited into the artery walls

Resulting in the formation of an atheroma

160
Q

How do statins work?

A

Inhibit the enzyme essential for cholesterol synthesis

161
Q

Name 3 ways to treat high cholesterol

A

Regular exercise

Low saturated fat diet

Medications known as statins

162
Q

What ratio of HDLs to LDL’s result in?

A

A lower blood cholesterol and reduced chance of atherosclerosis

163
Q

What is DVT?

A

Deep vein thrombosis- formation of a thrombus in a deep vein, usually in the calf muscle causing pain and swelling.

164
Q

Describe what happens when a rise in blood glucose is detected

A

The rise is detected by pancreatic receptor cells

These increase the secretion of insulin which converts glucose into glycogen

Glycogen is stored in the liver and decreases blood glucose levels

165
Q

Describe what happens if a drop in blood glucose levels is detected

A

The drop is detected by pancreatic receptors cells

These increase the secretion of glucagon by the pancreas which converts glycogen to glucose

This increases blood glucose levels

166
Q

What’s more common type 1 diabetes or type 2?

A

Type 2

167
Q

When does type 1 diabetes usually occur?

A

Childhood

168
Q

Name at least 3 benefits of exercise

A

Increases energy expenditure and preserves lean tissue

Reduces the risk of CVD

Keeps weight under control

Minimises stress

Reduces hypertension

Increased the number of HDL’s in the blood therefore reducing cholesterol levels

169
Q

When does type 2 diabetes usually occur?

A

Later in life

170
Q

What is the biology of type 1 diabetes?

A

The patients pancreatic cells do not produce insulin but they’re cells still have normal insulin receptors.

171
Q

How are the chances type 2 diabetes heightened?

A

Being over weight or having a bad diet

172
Q

What is a treatment for type 2 diabetes?

A

Regular exercise and diet changes

173
Q

What is a treatment for type 1 diabetes?

A

Regular doses of insulin

174
Q

What would a glucose tolerance test diagnose?

A

Diabetes

175
Q

Why BMI is considered obese?

A

Over 30

176
Q

Name 3 types of physical contraceptive methods

A

Barrier methods- condoms, diaphragm

IUD

Sterilisation

177
Q

What is the biology of type 2 diabetes?

A

The patients pancreatic cells still produce sufficient insulin but they’re pancreatic receptors have become less sensitive to insulin.

178
Q

Describe how a glucose tolerance test works

A

The patient would fast for 8 hours to limit the initial level of glucose in the blood

They would consume a known mass of glucose

They’re glucose levels would be monitored over 2 hours and interpreted to determine if their body is handling glucose appropriately.

179
Q

What can obesity lead to?

A

CVD or type 2 diabetes

180
Q

What is BMI?

A

Body mass index, ideal weight for an individual person

181
Q

How is BMI calculated?

A

BMI= body mass/height^2

182
Q

Why is BMI not always reliable or accurate?

A

Can wrongly identify muscular people as obese as it doesn’t distinguish between muscle tissue and fat

183
Q

What happens to blood glucose concentration after a meal for diabetics?

A

It will rise rapidly

184
Q

What does chronic elevation of blood glucose lead to?

A

Endothelial cells taking in more glucose than normal, damaging the blood vessels

Risk of atherosclerosis

Haemorrhaging of blood vessels in the retina

Renal failure

Peripheral nerve dysfunction

185
Q

What happens to the excess tissue fluid that does not return to the capillaries?

A

Absorbed by thin walled lymphatic vessels

186
Q

What does a P wave represent?

A

Arterial systole

186
Q

What do clotting factors do?

A

Turn prothrombin (inactive enzyme) into thrombin (active enzyme)

Higher Human Biology (3 decks)

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