Unit 3: Lines of Reasoning

Question 1

What is a logical relationship?

Answer 1

• An association between two or more ideas, events, or actions that are logically connected.
• Established through reasoning and evidence to support the relationship.
• On the exam, you will identify and analyze logical relationships in written texts, such as cause-and-effect, comparison-contrast, and argument-counterargument.
• Understanding logical relationships is crucial in constructing clear, well-supported arguments and analyzing those of others.

Question 2

What are the three types of claims?

Answer 2

• A claim of fact asserts that a statement is true or false based on evidence. Whether or not this is a good choice depends on the quality and credibility of the evidence used to support a claim. The evidence should be factual yet debatable (avoid statistics or proven facts).
• Example: Decreasing carbon dioxide emissions from car exhaust, manufacturing processes, fertilizers, and landfills, while slowing deforestation, may help slow the process of global warming.
• A claim of value is a statement that asserts the worth, goodness, or rightness of something.
• Example: It’s better to apply good nutritional choices at home than teach them at school because if a child practices good dietary decisions at home, they become ingrained in the child’s experience.
• A claim of policy asserts that a course of action should be taken to address a particular issue or problem. When evaluating a claim of policy, assess the logic and feasibility of the proposed solution, as well as the evidence used to support it.
• Example: The city’s board of education should institute an honors program for high school students and for elementary and junior high school students.

Question 3

What is commentary on evidence?

Answer 3

• The explanation or interpretation of the evidence used to support an argument in a written text.
• On the exam, you will analyze the evidence presented in a text, provide commentary explaining its significance and how it supports the argument, and evaluate the evidence’s relevance, credibility, and sufficiency.
• Good commentary helps to strengthen the argument and demonstrate the writer’s critical thinking skills.
• Example (claim and evidence only): “Dogs are better than cats because they are more loving. Veterinarian Madeline Bruno explains that dogs typically greet their owner when pet owners get home, while cats do not.”
• Example (claim, evidence, commentary): “Dogs are better than cats because dogs are more loving. Veterinarian Madeline Bruno explains that dogs typically greet their owner when pet owners get home, while cats do not. A greeting at the door may seem small, but small displays of affection add to meaningful amounts of love over time.”

Question 4

What is a line of reasoning?

Answer 4

• The series of steps or thought processes used to reach a conclusion or support an argument.
• On the exam, you will analyze lines of reasoning in written texts and construct clear and well-supported lines in your writing.
• A line of reasoning should be logical, coherent, and evidence-based.
• Example:
  Student: “Because I’m sick, I’m not going to school today. Going to school sick makes me sicker and can infect other people.”
  The student uses evidence (e.g., I am sick) and reasoning that leads to a logical conclusion.

Question 5

What is the rhetorical mode of example/analogy?

Answer 5

• Example/Analogy: Use examples or analogies to clarify and illustrate complex ideas.
• Specific, relevant examples can support an argument and make writing more persuasive.
• Example: “The brain is like a computer, processing information and connecting to various networks.” This analogy compares the function of the brain to that of a computer, highlighting similarities between the two.

Question 6

What is rhetorical mode of classification?

Answer 6

• Classification: Organize information into categories and classify it based on common characteristics.
• Effectively categorizing information can help one better understand a text.
• Example: The categories of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish sort animals into groups.

Question 7

What is the rhetorical mode of analysis?

Answer 7

• Analysis: Break down a text into parts and examine each section in detail to understand the overall meaning.
• Analyzing a text’s structure, language, and rhetorical strategies can help one understand its purpose and effectiveness.
• Use this mode to evaluate an author’s argument, writing style, and the impact of their text on the audience.
• Example: An analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech would examine its structure, use of language, and persuasive techniques to better understand its lasting impact.

Question 8

What does it mean to justify a claim?

Answer 8

• Provide evidence and reasoning to support a claim and make it credible to an audience.
• Various methods to do so, including facts and data, expert testimony, and personal anecdotes.
• Convince the audience of the claim’s validity and credibility and build a robust and well-supported argument.

Question 9

What is a method of development?

Answer 9

• A method of development is used in writing to organize and present ideas clearly and convincingly.
• Each method can support an argument and make a text more persuasive and compelling.
• Some typical methods of development are narration, cause-effect, comparison-contrast, definition, and description.
• In these flashcards, we will go through nine methods of development whose use cases vary depending on the specific purpose and audience of a text.

Question 10

How can narration be used in composition?

Answer 10

Involves telling a story or sequence of events to illustrate a point or provide background information. Compelling narration may include some of the following elements:
- Clear narrative structure: A well-organized narrative should have a clear beginning, middle, and end, with a precise sequence of events.
- Vivid descriptions: Use sensory details to create a concrete and engaging picture for the reader.
- Characterizations: Characters in a narrative can help to illustrate a point or make an argument more persuasive.
- Conflict and resolution: A challenge the characters face can help to create tension and make the narrative more exciting and engaging.
- Purpose: The purpose of a narrative should be clear, whether it is to illustrate a point, provide background information, or engage the reader.

Question 11

How can cause-effect be used in composition?

Answer 11

Involves examining the relationship between two or more events and showing how one event results from the other. Good cause-effect may involve:
- Identifying the cause and effect relationship: Identify the cause and effect relationship between two or more events.
- Providing evidence: Support the cause-and-effect relationship using, for example, historical or scientific data.
- Considering the implications: Let’s assume the cause-effect relationship holds. What impact could it have on society or the future?

Question 12

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

Answer 12

• Correlation refers to a statistical relationship between two or more variables, where a change in one variable is associated with a change in another.
• For example, a positive correlation exists between ice cream sales and the number of swimming pool accidents; as the number of swimming pool accidents increases, so do the sales of ice cream. However, this does not mean that ice cream causes swimming pool accidents.
• Causation refers to a relationship where a change in one variable is the direct result of a change in another variable (cause-effect).
• For example, smoking causes lung cancer: if a person smokes, it is a direct cause of them developing lung cancer.

Question 13

What is the difference between an immediate cause and an underlying cause?

Answer 13

• Immediate cause refers to the direct cause of an event.
• For example, if a car accident occurs, the immediate cause may be the driver losing control of the car.
• Underlying cause refers to the root or deeper cause of an event.
• For example, the underlying cause of the car accident may be the driver being distracted by a cell phone.

Question 14

How can sequential or chronological elements give a composition structure?

Answer 14

Follow a specific order of events or steps in time. Divide your points into subtopics listed in order.
- Chronological pattern: Present events or information in the order they occurred.
- For example, provide a timeline of events.
- Sequential pattern: Describe a series of consecutive steps
- For example, explain a process or how something works.

Question 15

How can sequential or chronological order different than narration?

Answer 15

• When using narration, typically, writers organize their pieces sequentially, though they may make choices for effect (such as a flashback) that are not sequential.
• However, sequential/chronological is not limited to narration; analysis pieces can do the same thing.
• Example: An essay on how a cat jumps can use sequential/chronological order (even though it’s not narration) to help the reader understand what is involved in something seemingly so simple.

Question 16

How can problem and solution give a composition structure?

Answer 16

Present a problem and then propose and evaluate solutions to that problem. One can use problem/solution to:
- Identify a problem and its causes
- Propose potential solutions
- Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each solution
- Conclude with the best solution to the problem
- Example:
Problem: Rising sea levels caused by climate change are threatening coastal cities.
Causes: Increased greenhouse gas emissions, melting glaciers, and polar ice caps
Effects: Flooding, erosion, and displacement of coastal populations
Solution: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by increasing renewable energy sources and implementing carbon taxes. Implement coastal defense systems to protect cities and support the relocation of people affected by sea level rise.

Question 17

How can order of importance give a composition structure?

Answer 17

Present the most important information first and then proceed to less important information. One can use order of importance to:
- Highlight the most crucial information for the reader or audience
- Establish a hierarchy of information
- Emphasize the essential aspects of a topic
- Persuade the reader or audience of the importance of a particular issue
- Example: Writing a persuasive essay on why recycling is essential for the environment – the benefits should be listed in order, from most to least important.
1. Explain the current state of waste management and the problems it creates.
2. Discuss the impact of waste on natural resources, wildlife, and human health.
3. Present the benefits of recycling, including conserving resources, reducing waste in landfills, and creating jobs.

Question 18

How can logical order give a composition structure?

Answer 18

Arrange ideas logically and coherently.
- In logical order, the first sentence of a paragraph relates to the central assertion.
- Follow up with evidence and commentary.
- Use transitions between different parts of the essay.
- Example: Logical flow
“First, we need to understand the root causes of poverty. Many agree that lack of education and job opportunities are the primary reasons for poverty. Therefore, we must focus on improving access to education and job training programs. These programs help individuals escape poverty, stimulate economic growth, and reduce inequality. Finally, it is essential to consider the role of government policies in addressing poverty. By providing tax incentives for businesses to create jobs and investing in education and training programs, we can create a more equal and prosperous society.”

Question 19

What is faulty causality?

Answer 19

The mistake of attributing cause-and-effect relationships where none exist. False causality can occur in several ways, including:

• Post hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore because of this): This is the mistake of assuming that because one event follows another, the first event caused the second.
• For example, after it rains for several weekends, assuming that weekends cause rain.
• No more than correlation: This is the mistake of assuming that a correlation between two events means that one event causes the other when the relationship may be coincidental or due to another factor.
• For example, assuming ice cream sales cause swimming pool accidents because they are correlated, even though both may be due to the increased temperature.
• Reverse causality: This is the mistake of assuming that the cause of an event is the effect of another event when the reverse is true.
• For example, assuming that poverty causes crime when actually crime may cause poverty.

Question 20

What is the straw man fallacy?

Answer 20

An argumentative error that can be avoided by accurately representing the opponent’s position and focusing on the most substantial arguments and evidence. Here’s what NOT to do:
- Oversimplify or distort the opponent’s position.
- Attack a simplified or exaggerated version of the opponent’s argument rather than the actual argument.
- Example:
Person A: “I believe that we should have stricter regulations on the sale of firearms to reduce gun violence.”
Person B: “So you want to take away all of our guns and leave us defenseless against criminals!”
In this example, Person B misrepresented Person A’s argument by exaggerating or oversimplifying it. Instead of addressing the actual argument, Person B has created a “straw man” argument that is easier to attack. By implying that Person A wants to take away all guns, Person B has made it easier to argue against the original position.

Question 21

What is the argument from authority fallacy?

Answer 21

A type of argumentative error that occurs when a person relies solely on the authority of an expert or prestigious figure to support their idea rather than presenting evidence or reasoning.
- The fallacy is problematic because it assumes that an expert’s opinions or conclusions are always correct without considering the evidence or reasoning behind them.
- Simply relying on the authority of an expert does not guarantee that the argument is sound, and other factors, such as biases or conflicts of interest, can impact the expert’s judgment.
- Avoid this fallacy by citing only facts and data.
- Example:
Person A: “I heard on the news that climate change is not real.”
Person B: “Well, if it was reported on the news, it must be true.”
In this example, Person B is using the authority of the news as a way to support their argument. The fact that the news reported on the issue does not necessarily mean it is true or accurate. Just because someone is in a position of authority, like a news anchor or reporter, it does not automatically make their claims accurate or trustworthy.

Question 22

What is begging the question or committing a circular reasoning fallacy?

Answer 22

An argumentative error that occurs when a person assumes the truth of the conclusion in their argument rather than presenting evidence or reasoning to support it.
- “Begging the question” is problematic because it circularly presents an argument, assuming the conclusions as a starting point.
- It fails to establish a logical connection between the premises and the conclusion.
- This can lead to a lack of understanding or agreement on the argument and a lack of credibility.
- Example:
Person A: “God exists because the Bible says so.”
Person B: “But how do you know the Bible is true?”
Person A: “Because God wrote it.”
In this example, Person A assumes the truth of their conclusion in their premises. They are “begging the question” by assuming that God exists and that the Bible is true without providing evidence or reasoning to support those claims.

Question 23

What is missing the point?

Answer 23

Occurs when an argument fails to address the issue and instead focuses on a peripheral or irrelevant aspect.
- In other words, the argument misses the central point of the issue and instead focuses on a tangential or misleading detail.
- This fallacy is problematic because it distracts from the main issue and can prevent a productive or meaningful discussion.
- Example:
Person A: “We need to reduce carbon emissions to address the problem of climate change.”
Person B: “But what about the jobs lost if we close all the coal mines?”
In this example, Person B is missing the point by focusing on a peripheral issue (the loss of jobs) rather than addressing the central issue of reducing carbon emissions to address climate change.
- Example 2:
Person A: “The safety features of a car, such as airbags and seat belts, are not important because accidents are rare.”
This argument misses the point that these safety features aim not to prevent accidents but to protect passengers in the event of a crash.

Question 24

How can sentimental appeals be fallacious?

Answer 24

Fallacious sentimental appeals are a type of argument in which the speaker tries to appeal to the audience’s emotions rather than using logic and evidence to support their claim.
- This type of argument is often used to manipulate the audience’s feelings to win their support.
- Example:
“Think of the children! We must pass this law to protect them,” is a fallacious sentimental appeal because it tries to appeal to the audience’s emotions by invoking thoughts of children rather than providing logical reasons for why the law is necessary.

Question 25

What is the slippery slope fallacy?

Answer 25

The slippery slope fallacy argues that one event will inevitably lead to another without providing evidence or reasoning.
- Assumes that a chain reaction will happen when there’s no evidence or reason to support this.
- Often used to scare people into accepting a particular position without questioning its logic.
- Example:
“If we allow gay marriage, then soon, people will be marrying animals. Before you know it, society will break down.”
This type of argument oversimplifies complex issues and presents a false dichotomy.

Question 26

What is synthesis?

Answer 26

Synthesis is the process of combining ideas from multiple sources to create a new, original argument.
- On the exam, you will analyze and evaluate various sources and then integrate the information into your writing.
- Synthesis requires critical thinking skills. You must carefully consider the various perspectives and arguments presented in the sources and then synthesize that information to create a unique, well-supported argument.
- Develop your own opinions, perspectives, and conclusions.
- Note the author & page number and document the source to avoid plagiarism if you quote, summarize, or paraphrase a source.