Unit 2: Rhetorical Appeals

Question 1

What is the audience?

Answer 1

• Who the writer is directing their message/argument toward
• For example, when you write a resume, your audience is potential employers.

Question 2

When constructing an argument, what should writers take into consideration about their audience?

Answer 2

• Age, education, familiarity with subject matter, interests, values, beliefs, needs, etc.

Question 3

Why is it important for authors to understand their audience’s values, beliefs, needs, and background?

Answer 3

• By understanding their audience, authors can tailor their style of writing, the structure of their text, and what evidence they use to maximize how persuasive they are.
• Example: if an author is writing an article for a scientific audience, they may use more statistics and expert opinions (as opposed to anecdotes and personal observations/experiences) because they know scientists prefer hard facts

Question 4

What is the difference between the intended audience and the actual audience?

Answer 4

• The intended audience is the target audience, the specific person, people, or group(s) the writer wants to influence with their argument.
• The actual audience is anyone who reads/watches/listens to the writer’s argument.
• Writers make rhetorical choices based on the characteristics of their intended audience.

Question 5

How might writers’ perceptions of their audience affect the rhetorical choices they make?

Answer 5

• Writers alter what they say and how they say it based on their audience. For example, the Queen of England would not speak to her subjects, a group she has authority other, the same way she would to the King of Spain, her peer.
• Knowing the audience helps writers decide what information to include, how to arrange that information, what tone to use, the level of formality of the argument, whether or not specific terms should be defined, etc.
• For example, a scientist trying to convince their colleagues that they have solved climate change should not use an emotional appeal such as a heartbreaking story. They should instead appeal to their audience’s logic with empirical data. But if the audience were the public, the opposite would be true.

Question 6

What are the three main modes of persuasion?

Answer 6

• The modes of persuasion, or rhetorical appeals, we typically focus on are ethos (credibility), pathos (appeal to emotions), and logos (appeal to logic).
• These concepts were introduced by Aristotle in Rhetoric, an ancient Greek treatise on the art of persuasion.
• Ethos, pathos, and logos are the three pillars of the Rhetorical Triangle or Aristotle’s Triangle.

Question 7

What is ethos?

Answer 7

• Ethos is a way for a writer to convince their audience of their credibility. It is an appeal to authority or character.
• The word “ethos” comes from the Greek word for character.
• For example, hearing the phrase, “As a doctor, I believe…” before an argument about physical health is more likely to sway you than hearing, “As a second-grade teacher, I believe…”
• Celebrity endorsements are a common example of ethos in advertisements.

Question 8

What is pathos?

Answer 8

• Pathos is an appeal to emotion.
• The word “pathos” comes from the Greek word for suffering or experience.
• For example, imagine that someone asks you to donate to a cause, such as saving rainforests. If they tell you a story about animals going extinct because of deforestation, you may be more likely to donate because you’re emotionally involved.

Question 9

What is logos?

Answer 9

• Logos is an appeal to logic and reason. It is a way for a writer to persuade their audience through a well-reasoned, factual argument.
• The word “logos” comes from a Greek word with multiple meanings, including ground, speech, and reason.
• For example, an advertisement may use statistics, surveys, facts, charts, graphs, historical data, etc. to make purchasing a product seem more reasonable and logical.

Question 10

How do writers use evidence?

Answer 10

• Evidence is used strategically to strengthen a claim, support an argument, or reach a conclusion. Writers use evidence to compel their audience to accept their claims.

Question 11

What are the main types of evidence?

Answer 11

• Specific instances include examples, case studies, and narratives. Writers may use this type of evidence to illustrate an idea to their audience.
• Statistics include raw numbers, averages, probabilities, and trends. Writers may use this type of evidence to seem objective, authoritative, and factual.
• Testimonies, or appeals to authority, include eyewitness/first-hand testimonies and expert testimonies. Writers may use eyewitness testimonies to give an audience a sense of being in the situation. Writers may use expert testimonies because they are backed by qualifications, formal knowledge, methods, and training.
• Evidence can be divided into categories in various ways. These examples demonstrate how different types of evidence affect the writer’s argument.

Question 12

How can a writer establish ethos through evidence?

Answer 12

• Writers can choose evidence that increases their argument’s credibility.
• A writer may select evidence that refers to their experience or authority with the topic, demonstrating their credibility.
• A writer may select quotes from experts, endorsements from authority figures, or support from groups with high credibility regarding the topic to increase the credibility of their argument.

Question 13

How can a writer invoke pathos through evidence?

Answer 13

• Writers can choose evidence that relates to their audience’s emotions and values.
• A writer may select expressive descriptions (especially of shared experiences), vivid imagery, and personal stories to evoke an emotional response from the audience.

Question 14

How can a writer invoke logos through evidence?

Answer 14

• Writers can choose factual, logical, objective evidence which strengthens their argument’s reasoning and validity.
• A writer may select factual evidence such as citations of facts, figures, or research. Factual evidence helps strengthen the validity of an argument because it is supposedly objective.
• A writer may select evidence that demonstrates comparison, cause and effect, exemplification, etc., to strengthen their argument’s reasoning.

Question 15

Why does an argument need sufficient evidence to be effective?

Answer 15

• An argument requires evidence. Without evidence, it is simply a claim.
• Evidence must be sufficient to persuade the audience.
• The strength of your essay depends heavily on the strength of the evidence you use to back up your position. Weak or inappropriate evidence results in a weak paper (and a low score on the FRQ).

Question 16

When is evidence sufficient?

Answer 16

• Evidence is sufficient when both the quantity and quality of the evidence are enough to support the argument.
• A strong argument has a sufficient amount (quantity) of relevant and sound (quality) evidence to support every claim. The more controversial an assertion is, the more evidence a writer may need to provide to persuade the audience.
• The quantity of evidence is sufficient to support a claim if it completely supports the claims, includes more than one type of evidence, does not leave out important information, addresses any questions a reader may have, and recognizes counterarguments.
• Evidence is relevant if it relates to the claim and proves the writer’s point.
• Sound evidence has no false premises, comes from credible sources, is representative of and applicable to the real world, and uses some objective evidence (logos).

Question 17

What is a thesis?

Answer 17

• A thesis is an arguable claim that provokes opposition, introduces the topic and purpose of the essay, and often guides the essay’s progression and structure.
• It informs the reader of the main idea/argument that encompasses the entire essay.
• An example of a poor thesis is, “Being a vegetarian involves not eating meat.” Note that this is a statement of fact, not an arguable claim. A definition is not a thesis.
• An example of a strong thesis is, “Being a vegetarian is better than eating meat because it is healthier, less expensive, and doesn’t harm animals.” Note that this claim is arguable; a reader could argue that being a vegetarian is not better than eating meat for various reasons. This claim also introduces the topic––the benefits of being vegetarian––and the purpose––possibly to convince the audience to stop eating meat. It guides the structure of the essay with three “prongs.” A reader can expect the essay to progress from one “prong” to the next in the order presented in the thesis. Not all theses will be structured this way, but it is often a safe strategy to ensure you earn the thesis point.

Question 18

How long should a thesis be?

Answer 18

• A thesis is often one sentence, although it does not have to be. You may read pieces with longer thesis statements or that don’t even have easily identifiable thesis statements. However, AP graders are looking for one to two-sentence thesis statements for the FRQs.
• The thesis point on the FRQ rubric is usually easy to get, but it is best to clearly and concisely state your thesis to guarantee that you earn it. It is ideal to follow a more formulaic approach on an FRQ to maximize your score.
• Outside of the AP exam, you have more freedom in your thesis writing.

Question 19

Where should a thesis be located?

Answer 19

• Most of the essay proves the thesis, so you’ll often find the thesis statement at the end of the introduction paragraph. However, this is not always the case; a thesis may appear anywhere in the piece and possibly in multiple places.
• Similarly to the length of the thesis, you may place your thesis anywhere you think it fits best, but it’s safest to structure your thesis as a single sentence, sometimes two, at the end of the first paragraph of your essay to make your thesis clear enough. The goal is to ensure that your AP reader thinks you’ve earned the thesis point.

Question 20

What is the difference between an implicit and explicit thesis?

Answer 20

• An explicit thesis is directly stated, noticeable, and definable. It provides a clear direction for the essay. An explicitly stated thesis is a thesis statement.
• An example of an explicit thesis is, “The most significant problems facing Africa are poverty, political corruption, and poor healthcare.”
• An implicit/ implied thesis does not have a clear, short thesis statement. When writing a piece with an implied thesis, a writer uses evidence to build and convey their argument to the audience without directly stating it. An implied thesis is still an arguable core idea that underlies and controls the piece of writing, but it is suggested through ideas and points rather than stated.
• You will likely encounter readings with both implicit and explicit theses, so you should be able to understand and interpret both types. However, every thesis you write for AP Lang should be explicit.

Question 21

What does ACE stand for?

Answer 21

ACE is an acronym standing for Appeals, Choices, and Exigence. The exigence is what prompted the speaker to write or speak. The appeals are how I attempt to appeal to my audience. And the choices I make refers to the rhetorical choices that I make, given the goal of my speech.

Question 22

What are rhetorical choices?

Answer 22

Rhetorical choices are the choices an author makes – what to talk about, how to talk about it – in order to convince their audience or to have the effect they desire. For example, if I want to make the case for gun control, I might make an analogy to laws governing driving (such as seatbelt laws). I have made the rhetorical choice to use an analogy because I believe it may help my audience look at a charged topic from a different point of view. Stylistic choices relating to diction or syntax are also rhetorical choices.

Question 23

What is the mood of a text?

Answer 23

Mood is the emotion evoked in the reader by the author of a text.

Question 24

How does mood differ from tone?

Answer 24

Tone is the attitude of the writer towards their subject. It is often described with feeling words linked to the writer or speaker, such as “angry,” “excited, “frustrated.” Mood is the overall feeling of the text, and is often described by explaining the audience’s feelings toward the subject or toward the text itself. Both tone and mood are created through diction and syntax, and they may overlap – but they may also differ. For example, both the mood and tone of a text may be gloomy. On the other hand, an author who is critiquing a politician may adopt a mocking tone, but may be trying to create a mood of anger or outrage in the reader.

Question 25

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 25

Deductive reasoning is reasoning that moves from premises to conclusions. It is often described using syllogisms – logical sequences with 2 premises (a major premise and a minor premise) and a conclusion. For example: All mammals have backbones. Humans are mammals. Therefore mammals have backbones. Such reasoning can be 100% certain, if the premises are both true and the conclusion logically follows. However, if either of the first two “legs” of the argument are false, the argument will fail. The same is true if the conclusion doesn’t logically follow from the premises. To critique a deductive argument, you must either knock down one of the “legs,” or convince us that even if the premises are strong the conclusion is not justified. For example: If I were to argue that all students like to party, and that Jane is a student; therefore Jane must like to party, you could critique my argument by showing that not all students like to party.

Question 26

What is a syllogism?

Answer 26

A syllogism is a type of reasoning that builds from a major (broad) premise and a minor (narrow) premise to arrive at a conclusion. Example: All students who work hard earn good grades. Samantha is a hard working student. Therefore Samantha will earn good grades. (Is this syllogism true?)

Question 27

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 27

Inductive reasoning starts from observations and generalizes from them. For example, if I have only ever seen black swans, I might reason that all swans are black. I may or may not be correct. Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning can never be 100% certain, because just one piece of confounding evidence can force a reconsideration of the conclusion.

Question 28

What is generalization?

Answer 28

Generalization is when we take a limited amount of evidence and try to apply it more broadly. For example, if I survey students in a couple classes and find that 73% of them prefer hybrid courses, I might generalize and say that it is likely that all students prefer hybrid courses. The more the evidence, the stronger the generalization (for example, the more students I survey the more likely it is that I can generalize from the results), but such generalizations may still prove false.

Question 29

What are the main ways that evidence can be used in an argument?

Answer 29

Evidence can be used to to illustrate a point, clarify what an author means, set a mood, exemplify what they are saying, create an association between two ideas, or to amplify a point.

Question 30

What is an open thesis?

Answer 30

Like all theses, an open thesis should be concise, disputable (meaning it can be debated), arguable (meaning an argument can be made either for or against it), and coherent. An open thesis generally makes a broad argument, and does not foreshadow the specific outline of that argument. EX: Boston is a better city than New York.

Question 31

What is a closed thesis?

Answer 31

Like all theses, an open thesis should be concise, disputable (meaning it can be debated), arguable (meaning an argument can be made either for or against it), and coherent. A closed thesis generally outlines the argument that will follow. EX: Boston is a better city than New York, because Bostonians are more polite, better educated, and generally friendlier. – We can anticipate that each of the concluding three points of that thesis will get its own paragraph in the body of the essay. On the AP exam, it is often more helpful to write a closed thesis, because you can look back at it and remember what you need to cover next.

Question 32

What is a concession?

Answer 32

An author makes a concession when they grant (or concede) a point to those who argue against them. Conceding points can help an author present a complex, nuanced argument, and can show that you are open to listening to those with whom you disagree. EX: There is no denying that some of the effects of social media can be harmful, but overall the beneficially community-building qualities of social media outweigh the harms. (Here the first clause is the concession, and it will likely become the topic of the next paragraph.)

Question 33

What is diction?

Answer 33

Diction describes the word choices that an author makes. It can help set the mood and tone of a piece, and can indicate the speaker’s attitude toward a subject. For example, if I describe a person this way – “he is crass, cheap and lazy” – it feels very different than if I describe him this way – “he is rough-around the edges, frugal, and tries to spend his time doing the things that matter most to him” – even though I am describing the same person with the same qualities.

Question 34

What is syntax?

Answer 34

Syntax describes the ways in which a speaker or writer puts words together on the page, from how they use punctuation to how they construct sentences to larger organizational questions (for example, do they use long or short paragraphs?) Like diction, an author’s syntax helps shape the mood and tone of a piece. For example, if an author uses short, choppy sentences – “I was so angry! I ran home. I threw out everything he had ever given me.” – the effect is very different from if they said the same thing using longer, more flowing sentences. “Because I was so angry about what Jim had done, I ran home from the store as quickly as I could, and threw out everything he had ever given me.”

Question 35

What is the active voice?

Answer 35

In the active voice, the subject of a sentence is the actor. For example “I petted the dog.” “The dog scratched the tree.” It is typically more succinct than the passive voice.

Question 36

What is the passive voice?

Answer 36

In the passive voice, the subject of a sentence is acted upon. For example, “The dog was petted by me,” “the tree was scratched by the dog.” It is often seen as wordy and awkward.

Question 37

What is a periodic sentence?

Answer 37

A periodic sentence is a type of complex sentence in which the most important word or phrase comes at the end. For example: “ To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, that is genius.” (Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Self Reliance”) – here the sentence cannot be understood until we reach the final word. For this reasons periodic sentences create tension and suspense.

Question 38

What is a loose sentence?

Answer 38

A loose sentence is a type of complex sentence in which the most important information comes at the beginning. For example: “I found a large hall, obviously a former garage, dimly lit, and packed with cots.” (Eric Hoffer) Loose sentences typically feel natural and are much more common than periodic sentences.

Question 39

List of strong verbs that can be used to describe an argument / what an author is doing.

Answer 39

Questions, Juxtaposes, Compares, Contrasts, Illustrates, Alludes, Challenges, Anticipates, Defends, Establishes Authority. EX: “By using forceful, aggressive language, Stevenson challenges the assumption that women should not have the vote.”