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Biology 3/4 > Unit 3 // AOS1 Textbook Definitions > Flashcards

Unit 3 // AOS1 Textbook Definitions Flashcards

The definitions of specific words that comes directly from the textbook.

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1
Q

Protein

A

A biomacromolecule made of amino acid chains folded into a 3D shape

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2
Q

Polypeptide

A

A long chain of amino acids. Proteins can be made of one or many polypeptides

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3
Q

Proteome

A

All the proteins that are expressed by a cell or organism at a given time

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4
Q

Enzyme

A

An organic molecule, typically a protein, that catalyses (speeds up) specific reactions

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5
Q

Peptide hormone

A

A protein signalling molecule that regulates physiology or behaviour

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6
Q

Antibody

A

A protein produced by plasma cells during the adaptive immune response that is specific to an antigen and combats pathogens in a variety of ways. Also known as immunoglobulin

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7
Q

Carboxyl group

A

The functional group on amino acid molecules that contains a hydroxyl group (OH) and an oxygen double-bonded to a carbon atom

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8
Q

Amino group

A

The functional group of amino acid molecules that is made up of one nitrogen and two hydrogens (NH2)

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9
Q

R-group

A

The variable portion of an animo acid and molecule. It can be one of twenty variations and determines the identity of the amino acid

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10
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Having a tendency to repel and be insoluble in water

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11
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Having a tendency to be attracted to and dissolve in water

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12
Q

Monomer

A

A molecule that is the smallest building block of a polymer

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13
Q

Polymer

A

A large molecule that is made up of small, repeated monomer subunits

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14
Q

Condensation reaction

A

A reaction where two monomers join to form a larger molecule, producing water as a by-product

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15
Q

Peptide bond

A

The chemical bond linking two amino acids

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16
Q

Primary structure

A

The first level of protein structure, which refers to the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

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17
Q

Secondary structure

A

The level of protein structure where the amino acid chain forms either alpha-helices, beta-pleated sheets, or random coils

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18
Q

Tertiary structure

A

The functional 3D shape of a polypeptide chain

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19
Q

Quaternary structure

A

The level of protein structure where the multiple polypeptide chains bond together, or other non-protein groups are added to form a fully functional protein

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20
Q

Alpha helix

A

An organised coil secondary structure of proteins

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21
Q

Beta-pleated sheet

A

An organised folded secondary structure of proteins

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22
Q

Random coil

A

An irregular secondary structure of proteins that is neither an alpha helix nor a beta-pleated sheet

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23
Q

Disulphide bond

A

A strong covalent bond occurring between two sulphur atoms

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24
Q

Prosthetic group

A

A non-protein group bound to a protein. For example, a vitamin or ion

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25
Q

Nucleic acid

A

The class of macromolecule that includes DNA and RNA. All nucleic acids are polymers made out of nucleotide monomers

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26
Q

Polymer

A

A large molecule that is made up of small, repeated monomer subunits

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27
Q

Nucleotide

A

The monomer subunit of nucleic acids. Made up of a nitrogen-containing base, a five-carbon sugar molecule (ribose RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) and a phosphate group

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28
Q

Monomer

A

A molecule that is the smallest building block of a polymer

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29
Q

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A

A double-stranded nucleic acid chain made up of nucleotides. DNA carries the instructions for proteins which are required for cell and organism survival

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30
Q

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

A

A single stranded nucleic acid chain made up of nucleotides. Includes mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA

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31
Q

Phosphodiester bond

A

A strong covalent bond linking a five-carbon sugar to a phosphate group

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32
Q

Condensation reaction

A

A reaction where two monomers join to form a larger molecule, producing water as a by-product

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33
Q

Sugar-phosphate backbone

A

A strong covalently linked chain of five-carbon sugar molecules and phosphate groups in a nucleic acid chain

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34
Q

Chromosome

A

A structure made of protein and nucleic acids that carries genetic information

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35
Q

Gene

A

A section of DNA that carries the code to make a protein

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36
Q

Genome

A

The complete set of DNA housed within an organism

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37
Q

Antiparallel

A

A characteristic of DNA strands describing how each strand runs in an opposite direction to the other. One strand runs in a 3’ -> 5’ direction and the other runs in a 5’ -> 3’ direction

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38
Q

Complementary base pairing

A

Describes which nucleotides can form hydrogen bonds with each other. C pairs with G, a pairs with T (or U in RNA)

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39
Q

Double helix

A

The structure of double-stranded DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, where each DNA strand wraps around a central axis

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40
Q

Nuclear DNA

A

DNA that is located in the nucleus of a cell

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41
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

RNA molecules that are produced during transcription and carry genetic information from the nucleus to the ribosomes

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42
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

RNA that recognises specific codons on the mRNA strand and adds the corresponding amino acid to the polypeptide chain during protein synthesis

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43
Q

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

A

RNA that is a key structural component of ribosomes, which assembles proteins

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44
Q

Transcription

A

The process whereby a sequence of DNA is used as a template to produce a complementary sequence of mRNA

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45
Q

Translation

A

The process where an mRNA sequence is read to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence to build a polypeptide

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46
Q

Genetic code

A

The set of rules by which information is encoded in genetic material

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47
Q

Triplet

A

The sequence of three nucleotides in DNA coding for one amino acid

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48
Q

Codon

A

The sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA coding for one amino acid

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49
Q

Start codon

A

The sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that signals the start of translation

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50
Q

Promoter

A

The sequence of DNA to which RNA polymerase binds

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51
Q

RNA polymerase

A

The enzyme responsible for constructing a pre-mRNA sequence from a DNA sequence during transcription

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52
Q

TATA box

A

A type of promoter region

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53
Q

Introns

A

Non-coding regions of DNA that do not code for proteins. They are spliced out during RNA processing

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54
Q

Exons

A

Regions of DNA that code for proteins and are not spliced out during RNA processing

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55
Q

Termination sequence

A

A sequence of DNA that signals the end of transcription

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56
Q

Operator

A

A short region of DNA that interacts with repressor proteins to alter the transcription of an operon

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57
Q

Repressor protein

A

A protein coded for by a regulatory gene that prevents gene expression by binding to its operator

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58
Q

Gene expression

A

The process of reading the information stored within a gene to create a functional product, typically a protein

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59
Q

Leader region

A

The segment of DNA or mRNA that immediately precedes the coding region. Also known as the leader segment or leader sequence

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60
Q

Precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA)

A

The immediate product of transcription of a DNA sequence. Requires modifications before it can undergo translation

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61
Q

Transcription factor

A

Proteins that bind to the promoter region and control the functioning of RNA polymerase

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62
Q

Template strand

A

The strand of DNA transcribed by RNA polymerase to produce a complementary pre-mRNA strand

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63
Q

Coding strand

A

The strand of DNA not transcribed by RNA polymerase, contains an identical sequence to the mRNA strand produced (except thymine is replaced with uracil in mRNA)

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64
Q

Ribosome

A

An organelle made of rRNA and protein that is the site of protein synthesis. Can be free in the cytosol or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum

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65
Q

5’ methyl-G cap

A

A molecule added to the 5’ end of pre-mRNA during RNA processing

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66
Q

3’ poly-A tail

A

A chain of adenine nucleotides added to the 3’ end of pre-mRNA during RNA processing

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67
Q

Splicing

A

Process where introns are cut out of a pre-mRNA molecule, and exons are joined together

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68
Q

Spliceosome

A

The enzyme that removes introns from the pre-mRNA molecule and joins exons together during RNA processing

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69
Q

Alternative splicing

A

The process where different exons may be spliced, resulting in a single gene producing multiple different mRNA strands

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70
Q

Anticodon

A

The sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that recognises a specific sequence of three nucleotides (codon) on an mRNA strand

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71
Q

Exocytosis

A

A type of bulk transport that moves large substances out of a cell

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72
Q

Gene regulation

A

The control of gene expression, typically achieved by switching transcription on or off

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73
Q

Structural gene

A

A segment of DNA that doesn’t code for regulatory proteins, but instead codes for proteins that play a role in the structure or function of a cell or organism

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74
Q

Regulatory gene

A

A segment of DNA responsible for producing proteins that control the expression of other genes

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75
Q

Activator protein

A

A protein coded for by a regulatory gene that increases gene expression

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76
Q

Operon

A

A cluster of linked genes that all share a common promoter and operator and are transcribed at the same time

77
Q

trp operon

A

A series of genes within certain species of bacteria that encode for the production of the amino acid tryptophan

78
Q

trp operon repression

A

Mechanism for gene regulation within the trp operon whereby repressor proteins stop the initiation of transcription when tryptophan levels are high

79
Q

Conformational change

A

A change in the three-dimensional shape of macromolecules such as proteins

80
Q

trp operon attenuation

A

Mechanism for gene regulation within the trp operon whereby the premature ceasing of translation stops transcription when tryptophan levels are high

81
Q

Attenuator sequence

A

Part of the leader region within the trp operon that allows for attenuation

82
Q

Terminator hairpin

A

A loop formed in mRNA in the presence of tryptophan that ceases transcription of the trp operon

83
Q

Antiterminator hairpin

A

A loop formed in mRNA when tryptophan is not present that ensure the transcription of the structural genes in the trp operon

84
Q

Vesicle

A

A small fluid-filled organelle enclosed in a phospholipid membrane that transports substances around the cell

85
Q

Bulk transport

A

A type of active transport that uses vesicles to move large molecules or groups of molecules into or out of the cell

86
Q

Active transport

A

The movement across a semipermeable membrane requiring an energy input

87
Q

Secretory products

A

The substances inside a vesicle that are being transported out of the cell

88
Q

Plasma membrane

A

The phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins which separates the intracellular environment from the extracellular environment

89
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

A

A membranous organelle shaped like a series of connected, flattened cylinders that folds and transports proteins via its attached ribosomes

90
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

An organelle made of flattened sacs of membrane involved in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins. Also known as the Golgi body or Golgi complex

91
Q

Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria)

A

A double-membrane-bound organelle that is the sire of the second and third stages of aerobic cellular respiration

92
Q

Catalyst

A

A substance capable of increasing the rate of a reaction without being used up

93
Q

Catalyse

A

To increase the rate of a reaction

94
Q

Substrate

A

The reactant of a reaction catalysed by an enzyme

95
Q

Reactant

A

A molecule that undergoes a transformation into a product. When enzymes are involved, the reactant is called a substrate

96
Q

Product

A

The transformed molecule created in a reaction

97
Q

Enzyme-substrate complex

A

The structure formed when an enzyme and substrate are bound together

98
Q

Activation energy

A

The energy required to initiate a reaction

99
Q

Collision theory

A

Explanation of chemical reactions that states that in order to react molecules must hit one another

100
Q

Biochemical pathway

A

A series of enzyme-catalysed biochemical reactions in which the product of one reaction becomes the substrate of the next reaction. Also know as metabolic pathway

101
Q

Optimal

A

The point at which for a given condition (e.g. temperature), the maximum function of an enzyme occurs. Also known as optimum

102
Q

Denature

A

The disruption of a molecule’s structure by an external factor such as heat

103
Q

Saturation point

A

The point at which a substance (e.g. an enzyme) cannot receive more another substance (e.g. substrate)

104
Q

Limiting factor

A

A factor that prevents the rate of reaction from increasing

105
Q

Limiting reagent

A

A reactant that prevents the rate of reaction from increasing

106
Q

Enzyme inhibitor

A

A molecule that binds to an prevents an enzyme from functioning

107
Q

Competitive inhibition

A

The hindrance of an enzyme by blocking the active site and preventing the substrate from binding

108
Q

Non-competitive inhibition

A

The hindrance of an enzyme by binding to an allosteric site and changing the shape of the active site to prevent the substrate from binding

109
Q

Allosteric site

A

A region on an enzyme that is not the active site

110
Q

Reversible inhibition

A

Enzyme inhibition that involves weaker bonds that can be overcome

111
Q

Irreversible inhibition

A

Enzyme inhibition that involves stronger bonds that cannot be broken

112
Q

Cofactor

A

Any organic or inorganic molecule, such as a coenzyme or metal ion, that assists enzyme function

113
Q

Coenzyme

A

A non-protein organic cofactor that assists enzyme function. They release energy and are recycles during a reaction

114
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate, a high energy molecule that, when broken down, provides energy for cellular processes

115
Q

ADP

A

Adenosine diphosphate, the unloaded form of ATP

116
Q

Endonuclease

A

An enzyme that breaks the phosphodiester bond between two nucleotides in a polynucleotide chain

117
Q

Recognition site

A

A specific target sequence of DNA upon which restriction endonucleases act

118
Q

Restriction endonuclease

A

Any enzyme that acts like molecular scissors to cut nucleic acid strands at specific recognition sites. Also known as a restriction enzyme

119
Q

Sicky end

A

The result of a staggered cut through double-stranded DNA by an endonuclease resulting in overhanging nucleotides

120
Q

Blunt end

A

The result of a straight cut across the double-stranded DNA by an endonuclease resulting in no overhanging nucleotides

121
Q

Overhanging nucleotides

A

Unbonded nucleotides on the ends of the DNA strand resulting from a staggered cut

122
Q

Ligase

A

An enzyme that joins molecules, including DNA or RNA, together by catalysing the formation of phosphodiester bonds

123
Q

Polymerase

A

An enzyme that synthesises a polymer from monomers, such as forming a DNA strand from nucleic acids

124
Q

Primer

A

A short, single strand of nucleic acids that acts as a starting point for polymerase enzymes to attach

125
Q

Virus

A

A non-cellular, infectious agent composed of genetic material enclosed in a protein coat that requires a host cell to multiply

126
Q

Bacteriophage

A

A virus that infects prokaryotic organisms

127
Q

CRISPR-Cas9

A

A complex formed between gRNA and Cas9 which can cut a target sequence of DNA. Bacteria use this complex for protection from viruses and scientists have modified it to edit genomes

128
Q

CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9)

A

An endonuclease that creates a blunt end cut at a site specified by guide RNA (gRNA)

129
Q

CRISPR

A

Short, clustered repeats of DNA found in prokaryotes which protect them against viral invasion

130
Q

Spacer

A

Short sequences of DNA obtained from invading bacteriophages that are added into the CRISPR sequence

131
Q

Protospacer

A

A short sequence of DNA extracted from a bacteriophage by Cas1 and Cas2, which has yet to be incorporated into the CRISPR gene

132
Q

Protospacer adjacent motif (PAM)

A

A sequence of two-six nucleotides that is found immediately next to the DNA targeted by Cas9

133
Q

Guide RNA (gRNA)

A

RNA which has a specific sequence determined by CRISPR to guide Cas9 to a specific site

134
Q

Genetic modification

A

The manipulation of an organism’s genetic material using biotechnology

135
Q

Deleterious mutation

A

A change in DNA that negatively affects an individual

136
Q

Gene therapy

A

Repairing genetic mutations by replacing a defective gene with a healthy one

137
Q

Single guide RNA (sgRNA)

A

Guide RNA utilised by scientists to instruct Cas9 to cut a specific site when using CRISPR-Cas9 in gene editing

138
Q

Gene knockout

A

A technique in gene editing where scientists prevent the expression of a target gene to understand its function in an organism

139
Q

Zygote

A

The diploid cell formed by the combination of two haploid gamete cells

140
Q

Gene knock-in

A

A technique in gene editing where scientists substitute or add a nucleotides in a gene

141
Q

Embryo

A

An early stage of development in an organism. In humans, used to refer to the organism during the first eight weeks of development

142
Q

Differentiation

A

The process in which cells develop specialised characteristics, typically transforming them from one cell type to another more specialised cell type

143
Q

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A

A laboratory technique used to produce many identical copies of DNA from a small initial sample

144
Q

Amplify

A

To increase the quantity of a molecule by making many copies

145
Q

Taq polymerase

A

A heat-resistant DNA polymerase enzyme isolated from the bacteria Thermus aquaticus, which amplifies a single-stranded DNA molecule by attaching complementary nucleotides

146
Q

Elongate

A

To synthesise a longer polynucleotide

147
Q

Thermal cylinder

A

A laboratory apparatus which alters the temperature in pre-programmed steps for temperature-sensitive reactions like PCR

148
Q

Anneal

A

The joining of two molecules, for example two complementary DNA strands during the cooling phase of PCR

149
Q

Forward primer

A

A DNA primer that binds to the 3’ end of the template strand and reads the DNA in the same direction as RNA polymerase

150
Q

Reverse primer

A

A DNA primer that binds to the 3’ end of the coding strand and reads the DNA in the reverse direction to RNA polymerase

151
Q

Gel electrophoresis

A

A technique that separates DNA fragments based on their molecule size

152
Q

Well

A

An indent in the gel into which a DNA sample is loaded

153
Q

Standard ladder

A

A mixture of DNA fragments of known length that are used to infer the size of fragments in a sample

154
Q

Agarose gel

A

A sponge-like gel used in gel electrophoresis that contains pores for DNA fragments to move through

155
Q

Buffer

A

An ion-rich solution that carries electrical current through the agarose gel

156
Q

Electrode

A

Conductors of electricity that are attached to both ends of a gel allowing an electrical current to pass through it

157
Q

Band

A

A line seen in the gel after running gel electrophoresis that corresponds to a collection of DNA fragments of a specific size

158
Q

Ethidium bromide

A

A fluorescent dye that binds to DNA fragments in a gel and allows them to be easily visualised under ultraviolet light

159
Q

Kilobase (kb)

A

A unit of measurement that corresponds to one thousand nucleotides. May also be written as kbp

160
Q

Base pair (bp)

A

A unit of measurement that corresponds to one nucleotide

161
Q

Lane

A

The column of the gel corresponding to each sample of DNA

162
Q

Genetic testing

A

Screening an individual’s DNA for anomalies that may make them susceptible to a particular disease or disorder

163
Q

DNA profiling

A

The process of identification on the basis of an individual’s genetic information

164
Q

Homozygous

A

Having identical alleles for the same gene on homologous chromosomes

165
Q

Heterozygous

A

Having different alleles for the same gene on homologous chromosomes

166
Q

Short tandem repeats (STR)

A

Short, repeated sequences of nucleotides found in the non-coding regions of nuclear DNA

167
Q

Plasmid

A

A small, circular loop of DNA separate from the chromosome, typically found in bacteria

168
Q

Recombinant plasmid

A

A circular DNA vector that is ligated to incorporate a gene of interest

169
Q

Bacterial transformation

A

The process by which bacteria take up foreign DNA from their environment. Scientists use this process to introduce recombinant plasmids into bacteria

170
Q

Insulin

A

A hormone secreted by the pancreas to control blood glucose levels

171
Q

Diabetes

A

A disease where the body cannot properly produce or respond to insulin

172
Q

Gene of interest

A

A gene scientists want to be expressed in recombinant bacteria. This gene often encodes a protein we wish to produce in commercial quantities. Also known as the desired gene

173
Q

Vector

A

A means of introducing foreign DNA into an organism. Plasmids are a popular vector in bacterial transformation

174
Q

Plasmid vector

A

A piece of circular DNA that is modified to be an ideal vector for bacterial transformation experiments

175
Q

Antibiotic resistance gene

A

Gene which confers antibiotic response

176
Q

Origin of replication (ORI)

A

A sequence found in prokaryotes that signals the start site of DNA replication

177
Q

Reporter gene

A

Gene with an easily identifiable phenotype that can be used to identify whether a plasmid has taken up the gene of interest

178
Q

Heat shock

A

A method that involves rapidly increasing and decreasing the temperature to increase membrane permeability in order to enhance the likelihood of bacterial transformation

179
Q

Electroporation

A

A method that involves delivering an electric shock to bacterial membranes to increase their membrane permeability and increase the likelihood of transformation

180
Q

Fusion protein

A

A protein made when separate genes have been joined and are transcribed and translated together

181
Q

Genetic engineering

A

The process of using biotechnology to alter the genome of an organism, typically with the goal of conferring some desirable trait

182
Q

Genetic engineering technologies

A

Refers to the artificial alteration of an organism’s genome via the exchange of foreign genetic material, typically from one organism. This is often done external to the organism via the use of a transfer vector such as a plasmid. Also known as genetic recombination technologies

183
Q

Silenced

A

Describes a gene that is prevented from being expressed

184
Q

Genetically modified organism (GMO)

A

An organism with genetic material that has been altered using genetic engineering technology

185
Q

Host organism

A

The organism researches wish to genetically modify

186
Q

Cisgenic organisms

A

A genetically modified organism that contains foreign material from a sexually compatible donor organism, typically from the same species

187
Q

Transgenic organism

A

A genetically modified organism that contains foreign genetic material from a separate species (or recombinant DNA from the same species that has been manipulated before introduction)

188
Q

Plant tissues culture

A

A range of techniques used to grow plant cells, tissues, or organs under sterile conditions using a nutrient culture medium, such as an agar plate or nutrient broth of known composition. It is widely used to produce clones in a plant

189
Q

Transgene

A

A gene that has been artificially introduced into the genome of a separate organism (usually of another species)

Biology 3/4 (3 decks)

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