unit 3 aos 2 Flashcards
learning (define)
a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. most basic type of learning is conditioning, which occurs through linking stimuli that occur close together
classical conditioning & phases
- a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two or more different stimuli- we learn that these two events occur together.
phases:
1. before conditioning (UCS–>UCR)
2. during conditioning (NS)
3. after conditioning (CS–>CR)
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that produces a naturally occuring, automatic response, eg. food
unconditioned response (UCR)
involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus, eg. salivation
neutral stimulus (NS)
event that does not produce a predictable response, this becomes the controlled stimulus through classical conditioning
conditioned stimulus (CS)
was the neutral stimulus, but becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus & elicits a conditioned response to UCS
conditioned response (CR)
learned response produced by the conditionded stimulus
factors affecting classical conditioning
- timing of the NS and UCS pairing: NS before UCS, very short amount of time between presentations
- nature of the response: UCR must initially be an auto response to the UCS
- association of stimuli: if the learner does not associate the NS with the UCS, conditioning won’t occur
operant conditioning & phases
- learning where the consequences of the behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future.
- stimulus–> response–> consequence
3 phases (A B C) - antecedent: stimulus that occurs before the behaviour
- behaviour- response to the antecedent
- consequence- to the behaviour, if the consequence is a reward, behaviour is strengthened, if punishment, behaviour is weakened
positive reinforcement
strengthens the likelihood of a behaviour occurring by providing a satisfying consequence.
positive reinforcer= ADDING something pleasant
negative reinforcement
removal of an unpleasant stimulus that strengthens the likelihood of a desired response
negative reinforcer= SUBTRACTING something unpleasant
positive punishment
delivering an unpleasant consequence following a response, weakening the response (less likely)
negative punishment
removal of a pleasant consequence following a response, decreasing the likelihood of the response occurring again.
factors affecting reinforcement & punishment (operant conditioning)
- order of presentation: after desired response
- timing: immediately after response to ensure the response is associated with the reinforcer/punisher
- appropriateness: must provide a satisfying consequence to be a reinforcer
comparing classical and operant conditioning
- role of the learner
- timing of stimulus & response
- nature of response
comparing role of the learner in CC and OC
classical- learner is a passive participant (response occurs automatically)
operant- learner is an active participant (must operate in the enviro before reinforcer/punisher is received)
timing of stimulus & response in CC & OC
classical- response 0.5 secs after stimulus
operant- reinforcer/punisher immediately after response
comparing the nature of the response in CC & OC
classical- involuntary
operant- voluntary
observational learning & stages
- learning by watching or listening to others
1. attention
2. retention
3. reproduction
4. motivation
5. reinforcement
attention (observational learning)
observing a models behaviour and the consequence
retention (observational learning)
learner mentally represent sand retains what has been observed.
reproduction (observational learning)
converting mental representation into action
motivation (observational learning)
learner must be motivated to perform observed behaviour, unless the behaviour is useful it is unlikely that they will want to learn it
reinforcement (observational learning)
influences motivation to perform an observed behaviour
–> external
–> vicarious
–> self reinforcement
story sharing
learning through narratives, ‘yarning’
learning maps
using images or visuals to map out processes
> one of the ATSI ways of knowing
non-verbal
think, act, make, share without words
symbols & images
sharing knowledge through art & symbols
> one of the ATSI ways of knowing
community links
sharing info with others
deconstruct/ reconstruct
watching then doing. holistic view then breaking into steps
non-linear
putting different ideas together. adaptive learning/ alternative way of thinking
> one of the ways of knowing
land links
lessons from land and nature, taking learning outside
> one of the ways of knowing
memory
the processing (encoding), storage & retrieval of information acquired through learning
> sensory memory
> short term memory
> long term memory
encoding
the conversion of sensory information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in memory
storage
retention of the encoded info over time
retrieval
recovery of stored info for use when needed.
incoming sensory info–> encoding –> strorage –> retrieval
atkinson-shifrin multi store model of memory
represents memory as consisting of 3 diff stores. each store differs in function, capacity and duration, however they operate simultaneously.
- sensory memory
> iconic memory
> echoic memory
- short term memory
- long term memory
> explicit memory
> implicit memory
sensory memory
- receives sensory info
- potentially unlimited storage capacity for 0.2-4 secs
- info remains in SM for just long enough for us to select info to be transferred to STM for processing. (by paying attention)
iconic memory
- visual sensory memory
- visual info retained in its original form for about a third of a second
echoic memory
- auditory sensory memory
- registers and retains sounds in their original form for 3-4 seconds
- important in understanding speech
short term memory
- maintains info in conscious awareness
- information is an encoded version of the sensory info
- holds info for up to 30 seconds before decay occurs (if info is not renewed)
can hold 7 + or - 2 pieces of information at one time.
long term memory
- sores info for re-access and use at a later time
capacity: potentially unlimited
duration: potentially permanent, info may be lost over time.
explicit memory
- LTM that can be consciously retrieved & stated
- ‘memory with awareness’
- general knowledge info about personal experiences
> episodic memory
> semantic memory
episodic memory
- LTM of personally experienced memories (what) associated with time (when) & place (where)
semantic memory
LTM of facts and knowledge about the world. not tagged with details of time and place
implicit memory
- LTM that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval
- non-declarative memories –> difficult to describe in words, but can be expressed through behaviour
> procedural memory
> classically conditioned memory
procedural memory
- LTM for skills involved in particular tasks
- memory of ‘how to do something’
classically conditioned memory
conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning
- eg. taste aversion that may be acquired involuntarily
hippocampus
- plays a crucial role in the formation, encoding and retrieval of new explicit semantic & episodic memories, and ensures they are stable and long lasting.
- involved in linking memories to emotions & various other functions with the amygdala
- turns STM into LTM
- encodes explicit memories through consolidation.
consolidation
neurobiological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring following a learning experience
role of hippocampus in emotional memories
- plays a role in the explicit memory component of an emotional event.
- activity of the hippocampus during memory formation enables you to remember aspects such as where & when the event happened when you retrieve it.
amygdala
- involved in the formation & consolidation implicit, emotional memories.
- role in processing & regulating emotions such as fear and anger that may be experienced intensely.
- interconnected with hippocampus
- strength of LTM formed is influenced by amount of noradrenaline at times of emotional arousal
> stimulates the amygdala to attach more emotional significance & signal hippocampus to encode the relevant emotional details.
neocortex
- largest (~90%) & most recently evolved part of the cerebral cortex
- plays a role in interaction with the hippocampus in the formation, consolidation & retrieval of long term explicit memories
- LTM’s stored here gradually become independent of the hippocampus, amygdala and other structures
basal ganglia
- role in voluntary movement and long term implicit memories involving motor skills
- involved with habituation & the associated memories
> habituation: growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus. decrease in responsiveness following repeated exposure to a stimulus - associated with impaired voluntary movements of people with parkinson’s disease
cerebellum
- located at base of the brain
- coordinates fine muscle movements, regulates posture & balance
- everyday voluntary, purposeful movements
- activities requiring a skilled sequence of movements that require timing.
- involved in encoding & temporary storage of implicit procedural memories for motor skills
mnemonics by written and oral cultures
mnemonics: techniques used to improve memory, by organising information in LTM, making it easier to locate and retrieve.
- acronyms (written)
- acrostics (written)
- method of loci (written)
- aboriginal peoples use of songlines (oral)
acronyms
- pronounceable words formed from the first letters of a group of words
- letters act as retrieval cues to prompt recall of the associated info
- formed using a type of ‘chunking’
- eg. ANZAC, FOMO
acrostics
- phrase or sentence using the first letters of each piece of info to be remembered
- first letter of each word acts as a retrieval cue, which assists recall of relevant info
- useful to remember info in sequential order
method of loci
- familiar locations are visually linked with information that needs to be remembered. each location acts as a retrieval cue for each piece of info to be remembered
- easier to recall if the location is personal or bizzare
- number of locations should correspond to the number of items to be remembered
songlines
- used by aboriginal and torres strait islander people to memorise and communicate information
- sung narratives which link info with a physical location
- songline acts as a retrieval cue for each significant site and the specific rituals that occur there.
> retrieval cues for for a range of information encoded within stories, songs and dances performed at each location. - encoding, storage & retrieval of knowledge communicated at different locations are enhanced through stories with vivid characters
role of semantic & episodic memory in autobiographical events
autobiographical memory: memory of experiences that have occurred at some time in our lives, based on semantic and episodic memory.
- links past events together together into a personal history through past, present and future, creating a life narrative
- stored in episodic memory.
- ability to mentally travel through time & remember thoughts & feelings from the past is unique to episodic memory
constructing possible imagined futures
- mental time travel: capacity to mentally reconstruct past personal events to imagine future scenarios
- episodic future thinking: involves a process of construction of events that have not happened yet, but are based on past events and knowledge.
- episodic memory provides the episodic elements (people, objects), used to construct future events, and semantic memory provides context for constructing the episodic future thinking
- episodic memory allows us to ‘relive’ the past and use past experiences to construct an imagined future
alzheimers disease
- neurodegenerative disorder caused by deterioration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, decline in cognitive skills and personality changes
- primarily affects explicit episodic and semantic memories
- damage to hippocampus associated with impairment in the ability to remember past experiences and episodic future thinking
- episodic and semantic memory play key roles in imagining the future
aphantasia
- absence of visual imagery
- suggested that brain areas involved in visual imagery, such as the visual cortex may be underactive
symptoms: - struggle to relive past autobiographical events/ less vivid autobiographical memories
- affects ability to imagine future events
- dreaming less
- problems with facial recognition.
