Unit 3 AoS 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A learning process that results in the involuntary association between two stimuli

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2
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A learning process that results in the association between a behaviour and its consequences

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3
Q

Classical conditioning order

A

NS comes before UCS immediately

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4
Q

Operant conditioning order

A

Consequence comes after behaviour as close in time as possible

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5
Q

Involuntary response and passive learner

A

Classical conditioning (UCR)

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6
Q

Voluntary response and active learner

A

Operant conditioning (behaviour) and observational learning

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7
Q

Conditioning

A

A type of learning that is based on forming an association

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8
Q

Fieldwork

A

Based on inquiry or the investigation of an issue, it involves observing and interacting with a selected environment beyond the classroom, usually to determine correlation, rather than a causal relationship

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9
Q

Ethical concepts

A

A set of underlying principles that are required to be considered when research is being developed

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10
Q

Ethical guidelines

A

Regulations that need to be worked into the experimental process where humans are involved. There is a separate set of these for use with research done on animals

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11
Q

The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding

A

Integrity (concept)

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12
Q

Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and / or instrumental value, giving due regard to the welfare, liberty, autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective. It involves consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions, and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary

A

Respect (concept)

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13
Q

The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action

A

Beneficence (concept)

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14
Q

The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action, and
that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action without discrimination based on factors of an individual’s circumstances

A

Justice (concept)

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15
Q

Avoiding the causations of harm; however, as a position or course of action may involve some degree of harm, this concept implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action

A

Non-maleficence (concept)

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16
Q

The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements

A

Confidentiality (guideline)

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17
Q

Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions. Any participant questions are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study. It is essential for all studies that involve deception

A

Debriefing (guideline)

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18
Q

Ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study. This should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this, then a parent or legal guardian should provide it

A

Informed consent (guideline)

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19
Q

Is only permissible if participants’ knowledge of the true purpose of the experiment may possibly affect their behaviour while participating, and therefore, the validity of the experiment. The use of it is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary

A

Deception (guideline)

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20
Q

Ensures that there is no coercion of, or pressure put on, the participant to partake in an experiment, and they choose freely to be involved

A

Voluntary participation (guideline)

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21
Q

Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after, the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty. This may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study has been completed

A

Withdrawal rights (guideline)

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22
Q

Behaviourism

A

An approach to psychology based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired through interaction with the environment

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23
Q

Types of fieldwork

A

Qualitative and / or quantitative observations and sampling, participant observation, qualitative interviews, questionnaires, focus groups and yarning circles

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24
Q

Social cognitive theory states

A

That our actions are shaped by our social context

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25
Q

Elements of the social cognitive theory

A

Observing the behaviour of others (social) and
evaluating the nature of the consequences they experience (cognitive).
and goal directed behaviour (active learner).

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26
Q

Observational learning

A

Starts with finding a model based on whether they are perceived as positive, similar, familiar, possible to imitate and has ‘stand out’ behaviour. Then we decide whether or not to imitate their behaviour based on whether they were rewarded or punished by their behaviour.

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27
Q

Observational learning stages

A

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement

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28
Q

Attention (observational learning)

A

Requires the learner to focus their awareness on the model and their behaviour.

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29
Q

Retention (observational learning)

A

The learner must be able to hold a mental representation of the behaviour they saw until they are ready to replicate it. The simpler the behaviour the easier to retain.

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30
Q

Reproduction (observational learning)

A

The learner must have the mental and physical capabilities to replicate the behaviour when they are ready (they do not actually replicate the behaviour in this stage).

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31
Q

Motivation (observational learning)

A

The learner must have the desire to perform the behaviour at that particular point in time.

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32
Q

Reinforcement (observational learning)

A

If the learner receives a desired outcome after performing the behaviour they are more likely to do it again.

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33
Q

Situated learning

A

Situated learning theory proposes that people learn through participation in a particular community. This community will contain experts who interact with the learner while they are all involved in the activities and practices of the community. In this way, the learner unintentionally becomes an expert simply through their participation and becoming more involved in the community. Their motivation isn’t to learn, but to belong.

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34
Q

Story sharing (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

A

Story sharing is approaching learning through narrative. This brings facts to life and helps create personal connections and relevance to what is being learned.

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35
Q

Learning maps (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

A

Learning maps are for explicitly planning and visualising processes. This helps a learner to see where they are on their learning journey, how far they have come and where they need to go next, and it can be linked to a physical land journey.

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36
Q

Non-verbal (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

A

Non-verbal applies intrapersonal (within the mind) and kinaesthetic skills to thinking and learning and includes self-reflective, hands-on methods. This removes the emphasis on learning through speaking and listening, allowing the other senses and experiences to reveal wisdom to the learner, especially as it caters for learning through reflection and contemplation.

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37
Q

Symbols and images (8 Aboriginal way of learning)

A

Symbols and images use visuals, symbols and metaphors to understand concepts and content. Symbols and images don’t require translating, and can communicate more to a learner than words can, sparking imagination and inspiration.

38
Q

Land links (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

A

Land links means learning through place-connected, environmental practices, linking content to local land and place. All plants, animals and land features can teach a learner something important, as well as act as useful metaphors for more abstract concepts.

39
Q

Non-linear (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

A

Non-linear means using indirect, innovative and interdisciplinary approaches and understanding by thinking laterally, or ‘outside the square’. This enables the learner to look at things from different perspectives that aren’t always straight-forward or step-by-step, but often circular or two-way.

40
Q

Deconstruct/reconstruct (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

A

Deconstruct / reconstruct is working from a whole to individual components through modelling and guidance. The learner first sees the object or concept as a whole, which is then broken down into its separate parts, and the learner is assisted to rebuild the original object or concept from those parts.

41
Q

Community links (8 Aboriginal ways of learning)

A

Community links means connecting learning to local values, needs and knowledge, including local viewpoints, and applying learning for community benefit. The learner recognises that what happens in the community is only a smaller version of what happens in the world outside it, and that all learning should be seen as valuable to the community.

42
Q

What is considered when creating a method?

A

what content area they are focusing on
what they hope to find out (their aim)
which set-up will provide them with the most useful data
what they can realistically achieve.

43
Q

Convenience sampling

A

Convenience sampling is often used because it involves using the participants who are easiest to access. However, this sampling process almost always leads to a biased sample.

44
Q

Random sampling

A

Random sampling is a process of obtaining participants where every member of the target population has equal chance of being selected. As there can be no pattern or strategy used, there may be an uneven representation of some groups in the sample. However, a larger sample will often balance these out.

45
Q

Stratified sampling

A

Stratified sampling overcomes the issue of a disproportionate representation of groups in the sample by making sure the sample reflects the balance of those groups in the target population. This involves:
choosing certain characteristics (strata)
measuring them in the population
keeping the same proportion in the sample.

46
Q

Within-subjects design

A

within-subjects design is when the comparison between each condition occurs ‘within’ each individual subject / participant, such as experiencing the IV and not experiencing the IV. Using the same participant for each condition, allows a lot of variables to be controlled and therefore not influence the DV as well as the IV.

47
Q

Between-subjects design

A

Between-subjects design is where participants are allocated to one of two, or more, different groups. Each group then experiences either condition 1 or condition 2, etc.. The data comes from the differences between the groups sets of results. This is ideal for avoiding participants improving through practice. It is also good if there is only one opportunity to measure the results, such as a performance in a grand final. However it can lead to participant differences or other variables impacting the results.

48
Q

Mixed design

A

A mixed design incorporates both within-subjects design and between-subjects design elements by doing a baseline data collection for the two or more groups, then having one group experience condition 1, and another group experience condition 2, and so on. The results initially come from comparing each group’s second results with their baseline results. The difference between these two is compared with the groups that experienced the other conditions.

49
Q

Types of methodology

A

case study
classification and identification
controlled experiment
correlational study
fieldwork
literature review
modelling
product, process or system development
simulation

50
Q

The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 3 memory stores

A

Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory

51
Q

The four stages that information goes through for a memory to be formed

A

Reception
encoding
storage
retrieval

52
Q

Reception

A

Obtaining the information starting in the sensory memory

53
Q

Encoding

A

Transforming sensory information into a useable format and giving it meaning

54
Q

Storage

A

Retaining encoded information in an organised manner in the long-term memory for when it’s needed

55
Q

Retrieval

A

Bringing a memory out of storage to use when needed

56
Q

Sensory memory

A

Sensory memory is the first store where information enters. We need to pay attention for the memory to move onto short-term memory. This stage helps to filter out unnecessary information.

57
Q

Sensory memory duration

A

0.3-4 seconds

58
Q

Sensory memory capacity

A

Limitless

59
Q

Sensory memory form

A

Raw

60
Q

Two sub-stores of sensory memory

A

Iconic and echoic

61
Q

Iconic memory

A

Storage for visual information

62
Q

Iconic memory duration

A

0.3 seconds just long enough for another to be received that will replace it

63
Q

Echoic memory

A

Storage for audio information

64
Q

Echoic memory duration

A

3-4 seconds longer than iconic memory, as the ordering of sounds impacts on their meaning, so we need to hold sound long enough to hear full words.

65
Q

Short-term memory

A

The second memory store after sensory memory where attended memories go for encoding and is designed to enable us to respond to information

66
Q

Short term memory duration

A

18-20 seconds approximately the length of the average sentence. After this time, information starts to decay unless it is actively attended to or rehearsed, as once the meaning is extracted from a sentence, the words themselves are no longer as important.

67
Q

Short-term memory capacity

A

7 (plus or minus 2) items so that we can hold multiple pieces of information simultaneously while problem solving. New information will push out or displace old information once capacity is reached, unless the old information is repeated to maintain it, which is known as maintenance rehearsal.

68
Q

How short-term memory moves onto the next store

A

Maintenance rehearsal (such as repeating it in our head) or elaborative rehearsal which involves doing something to add extra meaning to the memory. Elaborative rehearsal is more effective when encoding. Unrehearsed or displaced information is lost.

69
Q

Short-term memory form

A

Encoded

70
Q

Long-term memory

A

the third and final memory store containing encoded and rehearsed memories in a organised manner to allow us to retrieve memories when needed.

71
Q

Long-term memory duration

A

Limitless

72
Q

Long-term memory capacity

A

Limitless

73
Q

How long-term memories are lost

A

If they are never retrieved or are lost within the long-term memory store. If you try to retrieve a memory that is poorly encoded it is also lost.

74
Q

Long-term memory form

A

Encoded

75
Q

Two types of long term memories

A

Explicit and Implicit

76
Q

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

A

A memory we are consciously aware we have and can declare we have them. Can include semantic and episodic memories.

77
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

The cerebral cortex is the large, wrinkled part of the brain that we associate with the appearance of brain matter. It is part of the forebrain. The cerebral cortex is divided into the left and the right cerebral hemispheres. These are responsible for the higher-order thinking that sets humans and primates apart from other animals. It includes the hippocampus and amygdala.

78
Q

Neocortex

A

The neocortex is outer layer of the cerebral cortex (‘neo’ meaning ‘new’) as it is believed to be the most recently evolved part of the brain. It is where conscious thoughts and actions are governed, such as those associated with sensory perception, cognition and language.

79
Q

The role the neocortex plays for explicit LTMs

A

The neocortex doesn’t form explicit long-term memories itself, but it is where those memories are stored. Different elements of a memory will be stored in networks of neural connections spread throughout the neocortex, and these will be activated when that memory is recalled to conscious awareness.

80
Q

The role the hippocampus plays for explicit LTMs

A

Within the limbic brain is the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for the formation and organisation of explicit long-term memories. It enables these memories to be formed and stored, and even has a role in their retrieval (though actual storage takes place in the neocortex). The hippocampus has a particular role in connecting information from the senses to new memories.

81
Q

The role the amygdala plays for explicit LTMs

A

Connected to the hippocampus is the amygdala, which is a small structure involved in the processing of emotions. Consequently, it has a role in linking emotions to explicit memories, as it encodes the emotion and then activates the hippocampus to attach the emotional significance to the declarative memory. This helps explain why emotionally significant memories are so difficult to forget.

82
Q

Implicit memory

A

Implicit memories are those of which we are not consciously aware. When we find it difficult to put them into words in order to explain what it is that we know. As a result, the individual doesn’t have to intentionally retrieve the memory, but rather the existence of the memory is implied through an observable behaviour. This includes emotional memories (such as through classical conditioning) as well as those that are procedural (muscle memory and memories for processes).

83
Q

The role the amygdala plays for implicit LTMs

A

Attached to the hippocampus (in the midbrain), the amygdala is involved in implicit (as well as explicit) memory formation. As it has a role in processing and regulating of emotional reactions – especially fear and aggression – it is linked to sympathetic arousal which occurs in threatening situations. The process of conditioning a fear response relies on the amygdala to connect the fear-inducing stimulus (UCS) with the new, neutral stimulus (NS) to form the association. Similar to the hippocampus, the amygdala enables the formation and storage of emotional memories to occur (actual storage probably takes place in the basal ganglia and cerebellum).

84
Q

The role the basal ganglia plays for implicit LTMs

A

With their role in the formation of new habits and routines, the basal ganglia are essential for the development of new procedural memories, which are memories of processes and skills. The formation occurs through associating positive or negative outcomes with the sequences of actions, which is then reinforced by repetition. This is why repeating an action increases our skill level and why some habits are so hard to break.

85
Q

The role the cerebellum plays for implicit LTMs

A

The cerebellum, at the very base of the head in the hindbrain, is a brain structure involved in the coordination of fine motor control. It regulates and coordinates movement, posture and balance, as well as the cardiac and respiratory centres, which function without conscious effort. The cerebellum coordinates the movement and balance of the body to enable it to dance, while the basal ganglia enables the dance routine to occur in a fluid manner. The cerebellum also has a role in classical conditioning and the natural reflexive response that occurs between the UCS and UCR. It is essential for implicit learning of classically conditioned emotional responses when working in conjunction with the amygdala.

86
Q

How to present quantitative data

A

percentages
measures of central tendency/standard deviation

87
Q

The use of percentages

A

Percentages make the size of a result clearer. Different results become easier to compare when all the scores are out of 100. Percentage change is useful if comparing how much a participant’s result has changed from a baseline score. This not only converts the scores to an easy to understand and consistent format, but it also allows individual participant differences to be controlled for as any influencing characteristics impact both results.

88
Q

Measures of central tendency/standard deviation

A

graphs the mean, median and/or mode using a bell curve or normal distribution. A tall and skinny curve shows a low standard deviation and a short and fat curve shows a high standard deviation.

89
Q

Elements of a conclusion

A

evaluate data to determine the degree to which the evidence supports or refutes the initial prediction or hypothesis
use reasoning to construct scientific arguments, and to draw and justify conclusions consistent with evidence base and relevant to the question under investigation
identify, describe and explain the limitations of conclusions, including identification of further evidence required
discuss the implications of research findings and proposals, including appropriateness and application of data to different cultural groups and cultural biases in data and conclusions.

90
Q

Modelling

A

involves the construction and / or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small- or large-scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand or simulate the system.