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Unit 3/4 - Global Politics > Unit 3 AOS 1 > Flashcards

Unit 3 AOS 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Nation

A

Refers to groups of people claiming common bonds based on culture, language and history. Some nations have their own state, such as the Japanese, while others want their own state such as the Tibetans and Kurds.

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2
Q

State

A

Traditionally this term refers to the central actor in global politics. States possess a permanent population, defined territory and recognised sovereignty. States are not necessarily culturally homogenous, for example Australia.

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3
Q

Sovereignty

A

Legitimate or widely recognised ability to exercise effective control of a territory within recognised borders. This is the primary organising principle of global politics, providing states with the authority to represent their territorial entity within the international community. State sovereignty can be challenged internally (for example, secessionist groups) or externally (for example, one state invades another).

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4
Q

Power

A

Refers to the ability of one global actor to influence the actions of another global actor. Power can be exercised in a range of types and forms.

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5
Q

Global Governance

A

Refers to institutions, rules, norms and legal arrangements that seek to facilitate cooperation, and manage relations, between states. Governance is carried out by both governmental organisations such as the United Nations and non-governmental organisations such as the International Criminal Court.

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6
Q

Multilateralism

A

Refers to a system of coordinating relations between three or more states, usually in pursuit of objectives in particular areas.

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7
Q

Globalisation

A

Refers to acceleration and intensification of exchanges of goods, services, labour and capital, which promote global interdependence. These have been facilitated by rapid changes in communication and technology.

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8
Q

Aims of ‘the’ State

A

Maintain Sovereignty
Ensure national security
Other National Interests, incl. Economic Prosperity, Regional Relationships, International Standing

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9
Q

Roles of the State IN Global Politics

A

Maintain an army
Maintain diplomatic relations
Negotiate treaties/Free Trade Arrangements
Represent the interest of the state in IGOs (UN, IMF, ICC)
Represent the interest of the state in other diplomatic forums (EU, NATO, G7, G20, ASEAN)

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10
Q

Security

A

Traditionally this term refers to the protection of a state’s borders from intruders and the maintenance of sovereignty, most commonly achieved through the use of military power. It has now evolved to include softer forms of security, such as access to resources and the protection of the environment.

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11
Q

What types of power do states have?

A

Military
Economic
Political
Cultural
Diplomatic

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12
Q

Hard Power

A

Refers to power exercised through coercion, or threatened acts of coercion, to influence the actions of other global actors. Most commonly exercised through military forms but can also include economic forms

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13
Q

Soft Power

A

Refers to the ability to shape the actions of other global actors through attraction and un-coercive means, for example diplomacy, culture, policies and history. A term first coined by Joseph Nye.

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14
Q

What are contested borders + how do they challenge sovereignty?

A

Situations where part, or all, of a state’s territory is claimed by another state or group of people = When there is not widely recognised borders that the state has effective control over
b/c:
- reduced ability to make decisions
- can’t control resources

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15
Q

Example of details as contested borders

A

Senkaku Islands
China v Japan - 8 islands = uninhabited
Possible oil reserves t/f cannot exploit
China attempt to claim through military - e.g. Coast Guard incursions, sailing submarines
US reassert Japanese control = challenge to China legitimacy of claim

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16
Q

Regional Groupings

A

Supernational organisations established based on geographical location

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17
Q

Impact of EU on Sovereignty - overview

A

Effective control:

  • ECJ is highest court of appeal t/f can overrule national judiciaries
  • EU law prevails over national law where there is a clash
  • loss of effective control over agriculture, trade and fishery policies b/c common policies
  • IF in eurozone loss of control over monetary policy (but didn’t have to join- 19 states))
  • IF in Schengen area (22 states) loss of control over borders

BUT

  • states remain ‘masters of treaties’ t/f EU can only have control over areas that the states empower them to have control over
  • states retain control over health, education, welfare, foreign affairs and defence
  • states can leave at any time (Article 50)

ULTIMATELY - states join b/c judgement is that benefits outweigh costs

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18
Q

EU impact on Hungary’s sovereignty

A

Legitimacy

  • EU parliament votes that Hungary persistently breach EU core values in Sept 2018 + July 2021

Effective control

  • ECJ ruled twice that Hungary approach to refugees breaches EU law (April 2020 re: not relocating + Nov 2021 rules law that made it criminal offence to help refugees violates EU law t/f law = invalid)
  • 2021 - EU holds back funding (impacts ability to exercise effective control) over LGBTQ+ legislation and corruption t/f Hungary has to choose to address concerns (forced to) OR forgo money

HOWEVER

  • EU can only suspend Hungary’s membership rights if all states agree (Article 7) not going to occur due to backing of Poland t/f NOT clear what will happen if Hungary do not abide by ECJ rulings
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19
Q

Aims of ICC

A
  1. Ensure the worst perpetrators are held accountable for their crimes
  2. Serve as a court of last resort that can investigate, prosecute and punish the perpetrators of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes
  3. Assist national judiciaries in investigating and prosecuting the worst perpetrators, allowing states to be the first to investigate and prosecute
  4. Help promote international peace and security by deterring future would-be perpetrators
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20
Q

Roles of ICC

A
  • Investigate alleged crimes
  • Assist state judiciaries to investigate and prosecute
  • Prosecute cases themselves
  • Hold trials and issue decisions
  • Sentence those convicted
  • Hear and decide on appeals
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21
Q

Impact of membership on power of ICC

A

3 out of 5 Perm Members of UNSC - not members = reduces legitimacy
Not many members in Asia - if states are not members ICC only has jurisdiction if UNSC refers

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22
Q

Jurisdiction of the ICC

A

Limited to crimes of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity.

Can only exercise jurisdiction if ONE of the following is true:

  • The accused is a national of a member state
  • If the alleged crime took place in a member state
  • If the situation has been referred by the UN Security Council
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23
Q

Overview of ICC achievements

A
  • 13 investigations (but Africa centric)
  • 50 people indicted
  • 14 are fugitives yet to be tried
  • 5 trials ongoing, and 1 in pre-trial
  • 11 convictions (however, one was acquitted on appeal)”
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24
Q

Key ICC case studies

A
  • Uganda - Dominic Ongwen = ex-child soldier convicted of 61 crimes in 2021= 25 years in prison - captured by US forces (who had prev. offered a reward for his arrest - criticism because he was a previous victim
  • DRC - 3 convictions (Dylio, Katanga and Ntanganda) - investigation began in 2004 at request of DRC - first conviction Dylio = 2012 Katanga = 2014 and Ntanganda = 2019 - 7 years b/w Ntaganda warrant and him handing himself in - committed further crimes during this time + living in plain sight
  • Darfur, Sudan - warrant for arrest of Omar al-Bashir - not arrested despite travelling to other ICC member states incl. South Africa in 2015 where he escaped helped by SA govt (court attempted to arrest)
  • Kenya - Kenyatta - ICC begun investigation themselves - Kenyatta elected president after being indicted - charges had to be withdrawn due to intimidation of witnesses
  • Afghanistan - 2020 investigation commenced - US responded by imposing sanctions on ICC officials. President of Afghanistan asked for investigation to be paused b/c investigating themselves (acting as court of last resort). Post-Taliban takeover investigation recommenced but focused only on abuses by Taliban
  • Palestine - ICC member despite not being a state. March 2021 ICC launch investigation - Israel indicates they will not cooperate
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25
Q

Limits to ICC power

A
  • Membership - no US, Russia or China, most of Asia not members - therefore no jurisdiction
  • Lack of cooperation from members - e.g. not arresting al-Bashir
  • No police force - cannot arrest themselves → 15 fugitives + al-Bashir eg. + knew where Ntanganda was but was able to continue committing crimes for 7 years
26
Q

Criticisms of the ICC

A
  • Africa centered
  • Not holding big powers to account - e.g. US in Afghanistan with re-launch of investigation
  • Lack of convictions prevents it from being a deterrent
  • Slow - only 7 convictions since 2002
27
Q

Aims of the UN

A

Keep peace throughout the world
To develop friendly relations between countries
To work together to help people live better lives, to eliminate poverty, disease and illiteracy in the world, to stop environmental destruction and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms
To be a centre for helping nations achieve these aims

28
Q

Examples of the roles of the UN

A

Peacekeeping (e.g. Congo)
Economic Development (e.g. MDGs and SDGs or UN Development Program)
Humanitarian Assistance (emergency relief – e.g. World Food Program)
Publishing information (e.g. the UN Human Development Index)
Peace Envoys/oversee negotiations

29
Q

Criticisms/limitations of UN

A

Historically determined veto

R2P - can only be enacted by UNSC

Lack of army

Lack of funding

30
Q

Aims of the IMF

A

To promote international monetary cooperation.
To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, and to contribute thereby to the promotion and maintenance of high levels of employment and real income and to the development of the productive resources of all members as primary objectives of economic policy.
To promote exchange stability.
To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payments … in the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions which hamper the growth of world trade.”
To make resources available to members experiencing balance of payments difficulties

31
Q

Roles of the IMF

A
  1. Policy advice (Surveillance) – IMF monitors member state policies and national, regional and global economic and financial developments  provide advice to member states about how to achieve economic stability, prevent financial crises and improve living standards + promote policies
  2. Financial assistance  LOANS – when states are having balance of payment problems + 0% interest concessional loans for low-income states
  3. Technical Advice/Capacity building– work with states to modernise economic policies and institutions
32
Q

Power of the IMF

A

$1tr fund

Conditionality of loans

Respect for expertise

33
Q

IMF Case Study - Argentina

A
  • 2018 – IMF lends Argentina $50bn
  • Conditions – reduce budget deficit by 4.4%, increase tax, reduce government spending by cutting ministries, salaries and health/education programs –>
    Inflation increased, GDP shrank -2.6% (2018), -2% (2019), poverty increased 50% and individuals/businesses took money out of Argentina
  • 2020 – IMF helped restructure private loans –> creation of 1.7m jobs and 35% increase to investment
  • 2021 – economy grew 10% (rebound after COVID) and deficit reduced by 3.5%
  • 2022 – IMF did not insist on austerity measures
34
Q

IMF Case Study - Pakistan

A
  • Pakistan experiencing high levels of external debt, political chaos, deteriorating security and 48 year high inflation
  • Pakistan forced to use IMF for assistance as they were on the brink of insolvency and alternatives unable to assist –> demonstrate IMF power
  • Conditions of loan – tax raises, subsidy reductions on fuel, and floating of exchange rate
35
Q

IMF and COVID-19

A
  • IMF provided:
    o Emergency funding to 89 states
    o Short term liquidity line to assist developed states deal with balance of payments issues
    o Grants for debt relief to 29 states
    o Policy advice, including for a green recovery
    o 87/100 of these programs had low/no strings attached
  • IMF influenced G20 to suspend debt repayments to 73 states –> demonstrate IMF’s diplomatic power
  • IMF created monetary cooperation with member states agreeing to lower interest rates
  • IMF also made attempts to set agenda:
    o Encouraged states to supply vaccines
    o Prevent further ruptures to global trade
    o Ensuring developing states can finance critical spending
  • Outcomes:
    o Global inflation at 8.8% (2022), up from 3.5% (2017-19)
    o Developing states have lost 20% of income while developed states only lost 11%
    o Poverty increased 95m in 2020
    o 15% of low income states are in debt distress and 45% are at high risk of entering
    o Only 19.5% of Sub Saharan Africa has received vaccinations; 61% of developing states (other than SSA) have received vaccinations; while 75.2% of developed states have received vaccinations (August 2022)
36
Q

Aims of Catholic Church

A
  • Advance beliefs of the Church on the international stage
  • Compassion for marginalised people, especially refugees
  • Peace and security
  • Comprehensive environmental programs
37
Q

Roles of Catholic Church

A
  • Represent Catholic views
  • Publicise views
  • Visit other states
38
Q

Case Study: Catholic Church and Climate Change

A
  • Issued papal encyclical in lead up to Paris Convention outlining need to change, support developing countries and accelerate political responses
  • Aim – improve environmental responses
  • Power:
    o Responsible for Poland joining Paris agreement
    o Pope able to meet with largest fossil fuel companies to call for carbon pricing and low carbon technology
    o Church divested in fossil fuels
    o Able to influence voters
    o Criticised slow response from governments
    o Stated that developed states need to assist developing ones
39
Q

Case Study: Refugees and Catholic Church

A
  • 2013 – Pope visited a Mediterranean island to lay a wreath in honour of those who drowned making the crossing
  • Pope is son of Italian immigrants who moved to Argentina
  • Aim – compassion for marginalised people, especially refugees
  • Power:
    o Prompted Italian Government to implement ‘Mare Nostrum’ (rescue mission), which has saved over 150k refugees - however, this only lasted 1 year and lacked support from EU
    o Drew attention and awareness to issue
    o Calls for Church to house refugees
    o Influenced USA to accept more refugees during Obama Administration
    o However, did not address Rohingya refugee crisis when he visited Myanmar in 2017
40
Q

Aims of Amnesty International

A
  • End grave abuses of human rights everywhere
  • Issues of focus – freedom of expression, women’s rights, death penalty, crimes against humanity, corporate accountability, arms, and refugees
41
Q

Roles of Amnesty International

A
  • Campaigning
  • Lobbying of governments
  • Raising awareness
  • Obtaining and publishing information
  • Social media use
42
Q

Case Study: Amnesty International and Refugees in Australia

A
  • Demands:
    o Abolish offshore detention and boat pushbacks
    o Commit to a regional approach to help refugees and asylum seekers
    o Increase humanitarian intake to 30k places/year
    o Improve the refugee sponsorship program
  • Effectiveness (power):
    o Reduced costs for community sponsorship program from $19k to $8k
    o Increased public support by 5% for resettling refugees
    o End of temporary protection visas
    o New Zealand solution to resettle refugees
  • Ineffectiveness (lack of power):
    o Refugee cap has not increased
    o Medivac repealed
    o Australia continues to refuse to accept illegal refugees
43
Q

Aims of Philip Morris International

A
  • Meet the expectations of adult smokers by providing innovative tobacco products
  • Generate superior returns to shareholders
  • Reduce the harm caused by tobacco through evidence based regulation and development of products with reduced risk
  • Be a responsible corporate citizen
44
Q

Roles of Philip Morris International

A
  • Product development
  • Marketing
  • Lobbying
  • Research and development
45
Q

**Power of Philip Morris International

A
  • Has significant economic power – profit of $12.9bn, 69.6k employees, and a 15.65 market share
  • Lack of power as despite legal action/threatened use, 17 countries have implemented plain packaging laws
    o Only Togo has cancelled a proposal due to lobbying by PMI
  • Lack power as Australian TGA has refused to allow heated tobacco products, despite lobbying by PMI and Foundation for a Smoke Free World (TGA rejected smokeless tobacco in 2020)
  • Lack power as WHO has warned against heated tobacco products
  • However, has demonstrated power in that heated tobacco products are allowed in the USA and EU
46
Q

Nation vs State

A
  • Nations are a cultural entity while states are a political entity
  • Nations must be homogenous while states may or may not be homogenous
  • Nations have no ability for representation at a global level while states are sovereign so can gain membership to regional groupings
  • Nations do not have a military while states do
47
Q

How Issues Requiring Multilateral Resolution Challenge Sovereignty

A
  • Issue itself – states lose effective control, and can lose legitimacy by causing the issue, and can have recognised borders disrupted
  • Resolution to the issue – states need to cooperate and may need to compromise
48
Q

Issues Requiring Multilateral Resolution:

How Climate Change Affects Sovereignty

A
  • Loss of effective control due to:
    o Rising sea levels disrupting recognised borders in island nations
    o Natural disasters causing destruction of infrastructure and loss of life
    o Cost of air pollution
    o Cost of disaster recovery
  • Loss of legitimacy for states causing climate change through high emissions, and states who are not acting to resolve issues
  • States that do take strong action will have increased legitimacy
  • States are not bound to take action on climate change so do not lose effective control
49
Q

Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
and its Impact on Sovereignty

A
  • States have the primary responsibility to protect their citizens
  • If states are unwilling to protect their citizens, the principle of non intervention yields to the responsibility to protect
  • Impacts sovereignty:
    o Intervention in states –> loss of effective control
    o Only allowed in instances when a state no longer protects own citizens –> undermines legitimacy
  • Principles for RTP to be enacted:
    o Just cause – must be a large scale loss of life or ethnic cleansing
    o Precautionary principles – right intention; last resort; proportional; reasonable prospects of success
    o Right authority – authorised by UNSC
    o Operational principles – clear objectives; common approach; limited force; appropriate rules of engagement; cooperation with humanitarian agencies
50
Q

UN and Peace & Security

Case Study: Myanmar

A
  • Genocide of Rohingya may account to crimes against humanity
    o 700 protesters killed in 3 months
    o Thus, meets just cause threshold
  • UNSC has adopted 10 statements but taken no substantive action
  • Inevitability of veto by Russia and China –> no draft resolution
    o China has condemned possibility for ‘one sided action’
  • The Gambia has initiated a case in the ICJ accusing Myanmar of being in breach of the Genocide Convention
  • It has been suggested that the structure of the UN needs to be reformed to ensure it achieves its aims
    o Non binding nature of GA limits it to public shaming
51
Q

UN and Peace & Security

Case Study: Yemen

A
  • 6 years of conflict
  • 2018 – 2021: UN Human Rights Council’s Group of Eminent Experts (GEE) documented war crimes and breaches of international law, therefore, UN obligated to act to protect population
  • GEE also alleged Canada, France, Iran, UK, US may be complicit in conflict –> mandate not renewed in 2021 –> surge in casualties and hostilities
  • 2018 – Stockholm Agreement = ceasefire; however, this did not last
  • UNSC placed sanctions in 2014, arms embargo in 2015, and resolution endorsing Stockholm Agreement in 2018
  • 3 key mistakes of UN:
    o Unconditional legitimisation of interim government
    o Complete disarmament of Houthis
    o Demand for withdrawal of Houthis to pre-2014 positions
52
Q

UN and Peace & Security

Case Study: Tigray (Ethiopia)

A
  • Conflict between Tigray Defence Force and Ethiopian Defence Force caused by a shift from a federalist structure to a unitary structure (Tigray regional government lost power)
  • Violations of international law – attacks on civilians, ethnic cleansing, use of child soldiers, forced displacement, therefore justifying use of RTP
  • UNSC has called for urgent ceasefire but have not placed sanctions or embargos as China and Russia define problem as an internal problem for Ethiopia – likely to veto
53
Q

How IMF Challenges Sovereignty

A
  • States lose effective control and flexibility to create social and economic policies due to conditions attached to loans
  • States lose legitimacy if they do not follow advice given by IMF
54
Q

How Regional Groupings Challenge Sovereignty

A

Positive Impact
* States choose to join (ultimate effective control) b/c of perceived benefits - e.g. greater representation on global stage
* States can influence policy of regional grouping

Negative Impact
* Membership requires ‘pooling of sovereignty’ → states have to be willing to compromise control over defined policy areas in return for membership

55
Q

Regional Groupings

Case Study: Brexit

A

Negative Impact of Brexit on UK Sovereignty:
* EU retains control over UK trade with Northern Ireland
* UK loses representation in EU institutions, but UK still has to follow EU trade rules
* Some UK products can no longer be exported
* UK pays £39bn to EU
* UK lose prosperity and security from being members of EU

Positive Impact of Brexit on UK Sovereignty
* UK regain control over migration, trade, agriculture, fishing and regional development
* UK chose to leave EU and were able to do so

56
Q

Issues Requiring Multilateral Resolution

A

Third-agenda issues (affecting more than one state at any given time)

Example: Climate Change

57
Q

Effectiveness of UN Achieving Its Aims:

Effectiveness of Sustainable Development Goals

A
  • Only 35/169 goals with data to measure progress
  • 6 goals on track
  • 5 goals going backwards

Progress:
* 89% global electrification
* 81% of births attended by a health worker

Lack of progess:
* Will take 40 years for equal gender representation in Parliament to be achieved at current rates
* Only 6% growth in renewables since 1990
* Greenhouse gas emissions set to increase 14%
* Debt to GNI increased to 43% in Sub Saharan Africa
* 85% of wetlands have been lost
* At current rates, by 2030 1.6bn people will lack access to safe drinking water and 2.8bn will lack access to sanitation
* 1/10 children engaged in child labour
* 99% of urban population breathe polluted air
* 1bn people live in slums
* 65% rise in use of natural resources since 2000
* 40k species at risk of extinction in next 10 years
* 17m tonnes of plastic entered ocean in 2021
* Loss of 10m ha of forest
* Impacts of COVID-19:
o 93m increase in extreme poverty
o Disaster related deaths rose 6 fold
o 147m children missed at least 6mths of school instruction
o First rise in income inequality in a generation

58
Q

Effectiveness of UN Achieving Its Aims:

Action on Climate Change - Paris Agreement

A

Successes
* First time all of the world’s states have had a single agreement for tackling climate change
* Peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible
* Adaptation to respond to climate change
* Finance – pledge for $100bn/year
* Keep temperatures well below 2°C and endeavour to limit to 1.5°C
* Achieve net zero emissions between 2050-2100
* 9 states analysed by CAT are almost sufficient
* 6 states’ net zero targets are acceptable
* Between 2020 and 2022, 27 countries increased their ambition
* 88% of global emissions are covered by net zero targets (Nov 2022), up from 70% (May 2021)
* 13 countries have enshrined net zero in law
* COP 27 - Created loss and damage fund –> achieve UN aim of helping those impacted by climate change

Limitations
* Contributions are non binding, so states are politically encouraged rather than legally bound
* 7 states analysed by CAT are critically insufficient
* Therefore, not ambitious enough to meet 2°, and no NDCs are 1.5° compatible = lack of UN influence
* Targets can distract from the need to reduce emissions in the short term
* It has allowed some countries to ‘hide’ behind net zero targets
* 8 states’ net zero targets have no information on how they will be achieved
* Only 3 of the top 10 emitters have climate legislation to achieve net zero
* COP 27 did not make any agreement to phase out fossil fuels

59
Q

Criticism of IMF

A
  • Conditions of loans often lead to lower living standards and reduced development
  • Over simplistic approach
  • Voting power based on economic power → claims of ‘economic colonisation’ and IMF being anti democratic
  • IMF seen as being an instrument of US power
  • IMF failed to forecast GFC
  • Slow process
60
Q

How IMF Promotes Globalisation

A
  • Elements of Washington Consensus:
    o Freer trade creates larger exchanges of goods and services
    o Foreign investment creates greater flows of capital
    o Low government borrowing ensures stability so increases interdependence
61
Q
A
62
Q
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Unit 3/4 - Global Politics (8 decks)

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