Unit 3: Flashcards
Describe Fazey and Hardy’s study and apply it to anxiety and arousal in sport.
Aim
Fazey and Hardy aimed to critique and expand on the Inverted-U Hypothesis of arousal, specifically questioning how anxiety affects performance. They proposed an alternative model called the Catastrophe Theory, suggesting a more complex relationship between anxiety and performance.
Sample
This was a theoretical paper rather than an empirical study, so there was no sample of participants as the study did not involve data collection from a group.
Method/Procedure
Fazey and Hardy reviewed existing literature on the Inverted-U Hypothesis, focusing on its limitations in explaining anxiety’s effects on performance. They proposed a new model (Catastrophe Theory) to illustrate how different levels of cognitive and physiological arousal impact performance.
Findings
Their theoretical model, Catastrophe Theory, indicated that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point. However, if both physiological arousal and cognitive anxiety are too high, performance drops dramatically, hence the term “catastrophe.” They argued this model more accurately represents the effects of high anxiety on performance compared to the Inverted-U Hypothesis.
Results
Fazey and Hardy’s findings contributed to a better understanding of performance under pressure by showing that performance does not just gradually decrease with increased anxiety. Instead, it can lead to a sudden “catastrophic” decline if both physiological and cognitive arousal exceed manageable levels, challenging the Inverted-U Hypothesis’s simpler model.
application
In practical terms, this research highlights the importance of (pre-game routines) and mental training techniques to control both mental and physical arousal levels before competitions. Techniques such as deep breathing, visualization, and pre-game rituals help athletes manage arousal, ensuring they remain energized but calm. These routines help keep physiological arousal within an optimal range and reduce cognitive anxiety, making a performance collapse less likely.
Point: Fazey and Hardy’s model suggests that athletes may benefit from (individualized anxiety management strategies depending on their unique responses to arousal and anxiety.)
Application: Coaches and sports psychologists could assess an athlete’s anxiety threshold (the point where their performance deteriorates) and create personalized interventions. For example, some athletes may need cognitive reframing to manage negative thoughts, while others may benefit more from progressive muscle relaxation techniques to reduce physical tension.
Why It Works: Tailored approaches recognize that each athlete’s response to arousal is different. By addressing specific needs, athletes can maintain optimal focus and avoid choking under pressure. This aligns with the model’s emphasis on the interaction between cognitive and somatic anxiety.
describe Yerkes-Dodson study ?
attempts to explain the relationship between arousal and performance. (inverted U hypothesis)
the model suggests that arousal steadily improves performance as it increases, until a certain point where too much arousal will lead to a steady decline in performance.
the model suggests performance is optimal when arousal is around medium.
easy tasks, best performed when arousal is high
complex tasks, best performed when arousal is low
describe Oxedine’s study ?
Oxedine suggested that:
-High arousal is neccessary for optimal performance, when doing simple sports involving strength, endurance, and speed.
-Low arousal is neccessary for optimal performance when doing sports that are complex, involving fine muscle movements, co-ordination etc.
However, its challenging to apply this theory as Oxedine doesn’t state which sports are ‘simple’ and ‘complex’.
describe Holmes and Collins study ?
Imagery- involves mental practice where an athlete imagines themselves achieving a certain goal.
Types of Motivation:
+ motivational-specific
+ motivational general-mastery
+motivational general-arousal
+cognitive specific
+cognitive general
holmes and collins also outlined the 7 key elements of effective imagery: PETLEP
Physical
Environment
Task
Learning
Emotions
Perspective
describe Lagos’s study ?
Biofeedback - involves using electronic instruments to monitor change in physiological arousal. by seeing physiological arousal in real-time we can use breathing techniques mental imagery etc. to reduce anxiety.
Lagos carried out a study on heart rate variability on a 14-year old competitive Golfer.
- the boy met once a week to practice biofeedback
- he was taught breathing techniques
= following the biofeedback sessions he showed reduction in self-report negative mood-states.
= his competitive performance also improved
Describe Munroe and Chandlers study and apply it to motivation in sport.
Aim
The study aimed to investigate the relationship between imagery use, self-confidence and self-efficacy in young soccer players. Specifically, it looked at whether different types of mental imagery could enhance players’ belief in their abilities and confidence in performing well.
Sample
The sample consisted of 122 youth soccer players aged 11 to 14 years from Canada. Both male and female players participated, representing a range of skill levels in youth soccer.
Method/Procedure
The researchers used a questionnaire-based method to assess the participants’ use of imagery and levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy. Participants completed the Sports Imagery Questionnaire for Children (SIQ-C) to measure five types of imagery (e.g., cognitive and motivational). Self-confidence and self-efficacy were also measured through additional standardized scales, allowing the researchers to analyze the relationship between imagery use and these psychological factors.
Findings
The findings showed a positive correlation between certain types of imagery (especially motivational and cognitive general imagery) and higher levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy. This suggests that young soccer players who frequently use imagery techniques tend to have greater confidence in their skills and abilities.
Conclusion
The study concluded that imagery is a valuable mental tool for young athletes, as it can enhance self-confidence and self-efficacy, likely leading to better performance in sports. Coaches and trainers can use these findings to encourage imagery practice as a way to build confidence in young players.
application
(coaching practices/ game prep) In practical terms, the study suggests that imagery techniques could be incorporated into coaching practices to boost motivation. When athletes use imagery to mentally prepare for games, they are not only building confidence but also strengthening their motivation by setting mental expectations of success. This preparation encourages athletes to approach their sport with a proactive, motivated mindset. Therefore, Munroe-Chandler et al.’s research highlights the importance of mental skills training, like imagery, in enhancing both the motivation and performance of young athletes, providing valuable insights for coaches, trainers, and sports psychologists.
(goal setting) Munroe-Chandler et al.’s study also highlights how imagery can be utilized to improve goal-setting among young athletes. Athletes who engage in imagery that involves visualizing achieving specific goals (e.g., scoring a goal or mastering a routine) can enhance their ability to set realistic, measurable, and challenging objectives. This goal-setting process increases motivation by giving athletes a clear focus and a sense of purpose. For instance, a young football player might imagine successfully completing a penalty kick in a high-stakes game, which not only builds confidence but also fosters a stronger drive to practice and refine their technique. By integrating goal-focused imagery into training sessions, coaches can help athletes stay motivated and committed to achieving their personal and team targets. This demonstrates the broader value of mental skills training as a tool for improving performance and motivation in sports.
describe Vealey’s study
Vealey’s model of sports self-confidence breaks down confidence into trait and state components.
Trait sports confidence (SC-trait)
- refers to an athlete’s general, stable belief in their abilities across all sports or competitive contexts. It’s an enduring characteristic, meaning some individuals naturally have higher levels of confidence.
State sports confidence (SC-state)
-refers to an athlete’s belief in their abilities at a specific moment or situation, such as during a particular game or event.
The model also includes the influence of external factors, like competitive orientation (how competitive a person is), objective sport situation (the task or competition), and demands of the situation on the athlete’s confidence.
By recognizing the interplay between these different forms of self-confidence, the model helps explain how both general self-confidence and situational confidence influence performance in sports
describe Bandura’s study
Bandura’s model of sporting self-efficacy focuses on the belief that individuals have in their abilities to successfully execute specific actions necessary to achieve particular outcomes in sports. Four main factors influence self-efficacy:
Performance accomplishments (success increases self-efficacy)
Vicarious experience (observing others succeed boosts confidence)
Verbal persuasion (positive feedback and encouragement)
Emotional arousal (managing anxiety and stress)
High self-efficacy leads to increased effort, persistence, and resilience, contributing to better performance and motivation
extrinsic motivation
being motivated by external rewards such as prize money, high salaries, sponsorship deals, praise or encouragement from the coach, etc.)
intrinsic motivation.
involves participating in sport for enjoyment
describe Amorose and Horn (2001)
study
The study examined 72 American college athletes’ aged 17 to 19 intrinsic motivation across different sports. Before and after the season, athletes completed questionnaires on intrinsic motivation and perceptions of their coaches’ leadership behaviors. Results showed no significant difference in motivation between scholarship and non-scholarship athletes. However, positive relationships were found between intrinsic motivation and coaching styles: technical instruction increased motivation, while autocratic behavior decreased it. This suggests that supportive coaching techniques that involve instruction and positive feedback can enhance athletes’ intrinsic motivation over time.
describe Van Raalte’s study
Van Raalte et al. (1995) studied self-talk’s impact on dart-throwing accuracy with 60 male undergraduates assigned to positive self-talk, negative self-talk, or a control group. The positive self-talk group repeated “you can do it!” before 15 dart throws, while the negative group said “you cannot do it,” and the control group had no instructions. Results showed that positive self-talk significantly improved accuracy (p<0.05) compared to both the negative and control groups, which performed similarly, highlighting self-talk’s potential to enhance performance.
Describe Kroll and Crenshaws study and apply it to personality in sport.
Aim: To investigate whether athletes in different sports possess distinct personality traits.
Sample: The study involved 387 male athletes divided into four groups:
football players
wrestlers
gymnasts
karate athletes
Method: Participants completed the Cattell 16PF questionnaire, which measures 16 personality factors, to assess their personality traits. The results were compared across the four groups.
Results: Football players and wrestlers scored higher on traits like aggression and dominance.
Karate athletes showed high levels of self-discipline and emotional control.
Gymnasts were more creative and flexible.
Conclusion: The study concluded that specific sports attract individuals with distinct personality profiles, suggesting a relationship between personality traits and success in particular sports.
Part 2: Application to Personality in Sport (5 marks)
Point 1: (Personality traits can guide athletes to suitable sports.)
Application: This study supports the use of personality testing in helping individuals choose sports that align with their traits. For example, someone with high self-control and discipline might excel in karate, while a dominant, competitive person could thrive in contact sports like football.
Why it works: Matching personality to sport increases satisfaction and performance because individuals feel better suited to the sport’s demands.
Point 2: Coaches and selectors can use personality profiles for (talent identification.)
Application: Coaches could use the Cattell 16PF or similar tests during recruitment to identify athletes whose personality traits match their sport’s requirements. For instance, recruiting emotionally stable and disciplined individuals for karate ensures better performance under pressure.
Why it works: It improves the likelihood of long-term success, as athletes with aligned personalities are less likely to feel mismatched or burn out.
describe Kircaldy study.
participants were administered eyesnecks personality questionnaire.
this was done to investigate whether personality was different for athletes in team or individual sports
it was found that:
- participants in offensive positions had higher levels of psychtoism and extroversion score than midfield players.
-male defensive players tended to be more emotionally stable, than offensive players.
describe Eyesnecks study.
Eyesneck proposes that there are 3 dimensions:
1). Extrovert & Introvert
introverts try to avoid high levels of arousal, and extroverts seek high levels of arousal.
individualistic sports -> introverts
team sports -> extroverts
2). Emotionally stable & Emotionally unstable
emotionally unstable - likely to respond to negatively arousing situations quickly, due to fight or flight.
emotionally stable - likely to respond to negatively arousing situations more calmly and relaxed
3). Psychoticism
dpeends on the level of testosterone
Overall. Eyesnecks theory is quite reductionist as he states that there is only one factor that affects the relationship between personality and sport, and that is the type of the sport they take part in.
describe Cattels study.
Cattel proposed a trait theory of personality, which he argued was more detailed than Eyesnecks.
He proposed that there are 16 personality factors that people use to describe themsleves and others.
The profile of their score on the 16 dimensions represents their “personality”.
Cattel presented a 16PF questionnaire to measure personality.
Kroll and Crenshaw used Cattels 16PF questionnaire to investigate personality in a range of sports.
describe Aidmans study.
the study examined the personality profiles of 32 elite juinior AFL players, using Cattels 16PF questionnaire.
they found that, the players were more sociable but less driven.
7 years later they were followed up, of the 32 juniors, only 13 made it to the AFL.
those who made it reported less tension, stronger group orientation, and showed a preference for traditional values.
What is the Background to Lewis study (2014) ?
• Parkinson’s disease (PD) affects movement and includes cognitive, sleep, and psychological symptoms like depression and anxiety.
• Treating depression may improve cognitive function and quality of life.
• Exercise and dance can reduce anxiety, enhance mood, and improve well-being in PD patients.
• This study explores whether dance improves mood in PD patients short and long term.
What was the aim of Lewis study (2014) ?
The aim of this study, then, was to examine the effect of a dance intervention on mood in the elderly, specifically on a group of people with Parkinson’s disease, across a long cycle of 12 weeks and a short cycle of one hour.
What was the sample of Lewis study (2014) ?
37 people
Aged 50-80 yrs old
Recruited using local ads
Contacted through local PD support groups
22 of these had PD
15 of these were an aged-matched control group
How did Lewis study (2014) measure mood in the long cycle and short cycle ?
Long cycle: POMS, assessing six mood dimensions and total mood disturbance (TMD).
Short cycle: BRUMS, a shorter version of POMS measuring the same mood states.
What was the IV and DV of Lewis (2014) study ?
IV: PD status and cycle time (long: 12 weeks, short: before/after the ninth session).
DV: mood scores
What was the procedure of Lewis study (2014) ?
Participants gave fully informed consent, completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS) to assess their mood over the past month, and filled out a demographics questionnaire in Week 1.
• They attended weekly dance sessions for 10 weeks (Weeks 2–11), led by a qualified dance instructor. Each session lasted 50 minutes, consisting of:
• 10-minute warm-up
• 30 minutes of rhythmic dancing (suitable for those with mild to moderate PD)
• 5-minute break
• 5-minute cool-down
• Dance styles changed every two weeks, including Bollywood, Tango, Cheerleading, Old Time Music Hall, and Party Dancing (Charleston and Saturday Night Fever). Participants could sit if needed.
• Week 9: Participants completed the Brunel University Mood Scale (BRUMS) before and after the session to measure short-term mood changes.
• Week 12 (a few days after the final dance session): Participants completed POMS again to assess long-term mood changes.
What were the findings of Lewis study (2014) ?
No significant difference in baseline depression scores between PD and control participants.
• Participants classified as highly depressed (POMS score ≥7) reported reduced fatigue after dance sessions.
• BRUMS results showed a short-term mood improvement after dance.
What were the results of Lewis study (2014) ?
• Participants: Data from 30 participants (17 PD, 13 control) were recorded, with some dropouts and exclusions.
• Baseline differences: PD participants had higher tension, confusion, vigour, and TMD scores than POMS geriatric norms, while controls did not differ.
• Mood disturbance: PD participants had higher TMD scores than controls throughout the study.
• Long-term improvement: Significant reduction in mood disturbance over time for all participants, with notable decreases in anger.
What did Lewis conclude from his study (2014) ?
The researchers suggest that participating in weekly dance classes can significantly improve mood in both the elderly with and without PD. They propose two reasons for this:
1. Dance provides mental challenges (memory, learning, and spatial awareness).
2. Dance is a sociable exercise, which helps combat loneliness, a factor linked to depression, and improves mood.
What was Steinberg and Sykes study about ?
The endorphin hypothesis.
This suggests that vigorous exercise stimulates the release of beta-endorphins, natural painkillers produced by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. These endorphins, chemically similar to morphine, bind to opiate receptor sites in the nervous system, reducing pain and triggering changes in synaptic plasticity. This may explain why exercise can lead to feelings of euphoria, often referred to as the “runner’s high,” and helps athletes endure intense physical activity.
What was Boecker’s study about ?
The study aimed to investigate the neuro-chemical basis of the runner’s high by recruiting 10 male athletes. Participants were selected based on their running habits and experience with euphoria during exercise. They underwent two PET scans: one at rest and one 30 minutes after a 2-hour run. Mood changes were measured using the Visual Analog Mood Scale (VAMS). The results showed significant increases in happiness and euphoria, which were linked to changes in opioid receptor binding in brain regions like the pre-frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and insula cortex. This suggests that endorphin levels increase in these areas after exercise, contributing to the feeling of euphoria.
What were McNair (1971) POMS ?
The Profile of Mood States (POMS), developed by McNair et al. (1971), measures six mood states: five negative (tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion) and one positive (vigour).
Respondents complete a 65-item questionnaire, indicating how they have felt over the past week on a five-point scale.
Each mood state is quantified, and scores are summed to create a mood profile, which can be plotted as a line graph.
The POMS allows for the comparison of pre- and post-exercise mood changes and offers a general measure of depression.
In Lewis et al.’s (2014) research, the POMS was used to assess mood changes in Parkinson’s disease patients following a dance intervention.
What was Peacock’s study about ?
Green exercise, which involves outdoor physical activities, was investigated by Peacock, Hine, and Pretty to assess its effects on mood.
Participants (20 people aged 31-70 from a local MIND group) took part in two one-hour walks, one outdoors at Belhus Country Park and the other indoors at Lakeside shopping centre. Mood and self-esteem were measured before and after the walks using the Profile of Mood States (POMS).
The results showed that the outdoor walk led to a significant improvement in mood, with reductions in anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension, and increased vigour and self-esteem (p<0.01). In contrast, the indoor walk showed only a slight change in mood disturbance. Participants reported that outdoor walking was effective due to the fresh air, scenic surroundings, social interaction, and the enjoyment of nature.
What was the aim of Smith’s (1979) study ?
Smith et al. developed the Coach Effectiveness Training (CET) programme to improve youth sports by enhancing coach-player relationships.
Based on a study of 51 Little League coaches and 542 players, coaches were observed, and players were later interviewed. The findings led to guidelines for good coaching practices.
What was the aim of Smith’s study ?
The CET programme aimed to increase coaches’ awareness of their behaviour, its impact, and how to develop positive coaching skills. It sought to improve coach-player and teammate relationships while reducing negative interactions.
What did Smith predict ?
The authors predicted that CET would enhance positive interactions and have a greater impact on players with low self-esteem.
What was the sample of Smith’s study ?
A sample of 34 male Little League baseball coaches (average age 36, with eight years of experience) was recruited from a previous study. Eighteen were randomly assigned to the experimental group, receiving CET training, while 16 were in the control group with no training. All 18 in the experimental group attended the training, while three from the control group dropped out, leaving a final sample of 31 coaches.
What was the procedure of Smith’s study ?
Procedure of the CET Programme
1. Training Session:
• Experimental coaches attended a two-hour session where they learned about the previous study’s findings and received coaching guidelines.
• Guidelines were presented verbally and in a brochure, with examples of desirable and undesirable behaviors.
2. Coaching Guidelines: • Emphasized reinforcement, encouragement, and technical instruction. • Aimed to improve coach-player relationships and reduce fear of failure. • Example: Coaches were advised to encourage players after mistakes rather than punish them.
- Coaching ‘Do’s and Don’ts’ (Example):
• DO: Encourage immediately after mistakes, give corrective instruction positively, and emphasize what good things will happen if instructions are followed.
• DON’T: Punish mistakes or show disapproval, as it increases fear of failure. - Self-Monitoring & Feedback:
• Coaches received behavioral feedback in the first two weeks.
• They self-monitored their behaviors after each of the first ten matches, reporting their use of desirable coaching practices.
• Reports were sent to researchers to ensure adherence.
How were the variables measured in Smith’s study ?
Measurement of Variables
1. Observed Coach Behaviors:
• 16 trained undergraduate observers used the Coaching Behavioural Assessment System (CBAS) to assess coaches’ behaviors in 12 categories (e.g., reinforcement, encouragement, punishment).
• Each coach was covertly observed over four games, with observers unaware of the coach’s experimental condition.
2. Player Perceptions & Attitudes: • 325 boys (82% of the total sample) were interviewed at home at the end of the season. • They rated their coach’s behavior using CBAS items on a 7-point scale (e.g., frequency of encouragement). • They also rated their own ability, attitudes toward playing, and attitudes toward their coach. 3. Player Self-Esteem: • After the interview, boys completed a general self-esteem test.
What were the results of Smith’s study ?
Results Summary
1. Observed Behaviors:
• No overall differences in behavior between experimental and control coaches.
• Experimental coaches used reinforcement more frequently (p < 0.05).
• Experimental coaches also used more mistake-contingent encouragement and general technical instruction, while using less non-reinforcement, punishment, and punitive technical instruction.
2. Player Attitudes: • No difference in liking baseball between the two groups. • Boys in the experimental condition: • Enjoyed playing for their coach more (p < 0.001). • Wanted to be coached by them again (p < 0.001). • Rated their coach higher as a teacher (p < 0.01). • Had a more positive relationship with their teammates (p < 0.001).
What was Tuckman’s study ?
Tuckman’s Four-Stage Model of Group Cohesion Development (1965):
• Forming: Team members meet and seek acceptance.
• Storming: Conflict arises as members vie for position, leading to frustration.
• Norming: Team members agree on goals, performance standards, and roles.
• Performing: Conflicts are resolved, and the team focuses on achieving tasks.
3. Characteristics of Cohesive Teams:
• Shared goals, team identity, respect, trust, good communication, and cooperation.
What is social cohesion ?
Team members like each other and feel satisfaction from being part of the team.
What is task cohesion ?
Team members work together to achieve shared goals.
What is Carron (1997) study ?
Carron et al. (1997) developed a four-point model for team building:
- team distinctiveness (e.g., wearing a uniform),
-social cohesion (e.g., team events), -clear team goals (e.g., setting daily goals),
-team communication (e.g., regular meetings).
They also provided practical tips for coaches, including ensuring players understand roles, encouraging pride in sub-team achievements, involving players in decisions, emphasizing individual importance, allowing disagreements, and maintaining a positive focus even in tough times.
What is Senegal (2008) study ?
Senecal (2008) studied the impact of a season-long team-building intervention on cohesion in 86 female high-school basketball players.
Teams were randomly assigned to a goal-setting group or a control group, with cohesion measured using the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) at the start and end of the season. The goal-setting group identified key performance indicators, set team goals collaboratively, and reviewed them throughout the season.
Results showed that while both groups had similar cohesion at the start, the goal-setting group had significantly higher social and task cohesion by the end of the season.
