Unit 3: Flashcards
Describe Fazey and Hardy’s study and apply it to anxiety and arousal in sport.
Aim
Fazey and Hardy aimed to critique and expand on the Inverted-U Hypothesis of arousal, specifically questioning how anxiety affects performance. They proposed an alternative model called the Catastrophe Theory, suggesting a more complex relationship between anxiety and performance.
Sample
This was a theoretical paper rather than an empirical study, so there was no sample of participants as the study did not involve data collection from a group.
Method/Procedure
Fazey and Hardy reviewed existing literature on the Inverted-U Hypothesis, focusing on its limitations in explaining anxiety’s effects on performance. They proposed a new model (Catastrophe Theory) to illustrate how different levels of cognitive and physiological arousal impact performance.
Findings
Their theoretical model, Catastrophe Theory, indicated that performance increases with arousal up to an optimal point. However, if both physiological arousal and cognitive anxiety are too high, performance drops dramatically, hence the term “catastrophe.” They argued this model more accurately represents the effects of high anxiety on performance compared to the Inverted-U Hypothesis.
Results
Fazey and Hardy’s findings contributed to a better understanding of performance under pressure by showing that performance does not just gradually decrease with increased anxiety. Instead, it can lead to a sudden “catastrophic” decline if both physiological and cognitive arousal exceed manageable levels, challenging the Inverted-U Hypothesis’s simpler model.
application
In practical terms, this research highlights the importance of (pre-game routines) and mental training techniques to control both mental and physical arousal levels before competitions. Techniques such as deep breathing, visualization, and pre-game rituals help athletes manage arousal, ensuring they remain energized but calm. These routines help keep physiological arousal within an optimal range and reduce cognitive anxiety, making a performance collapse less likely.
Point: Fazey and Hardy’s model suggests that athletes may benefit from (individualized anxiety management strategies depending on their unique responses to arousal and anxiety.)
Application: Coaches and sports psychologists could assess an athlete’s anxiety threshold (the point where their performance deteriorates) and create personalized interventions. For example, some athletes may need cognitive reframing to manage negative thoughts, while others may benefit more from progressive muscle relaxation techniques to reduce physical tension.
Why It Works: Tailored approaches recognize that each athlete’s response to arousal is different. By addressing specific needs, athletes can maintain optimal focus and avoid choking under pressure. This aligns with the model’s emphasis on the interaction between cognitive and somatic anxiety.
describe Yerkes-Dodson study ?
attempts to explain the relationship between arousal and performance. (inverted U hypothesis)
the model suggests that arousal steadily improves performance as it increases, until a certain point where too much arousal will lead to a steady decline in performance.
the model suggests performance is optimal when arousal is around medium.
easy tasks, best performed when arousal is high
complex tasks, best performed when arousal is low
describe Oxedine’s study ?
Oxedine suggested that:
-High arousal is neccessary for optimal performance, when doing simple sports involving strength, endurance, and speed.
-Low arousal is neccessary for optimal performance when doing sports that are complex, involving fine muscle movements, co-ordination etc.
However, its challenging to apply this theory as Oxedine doesn’t state which sports are ‘simple’ and ‘complex’.
describe Holmes and Collins study ?
Imagery- involves mental practice where an athlete imagines themselves achieving a certain goal.
Types of Motivation:
+ motivational-specific
+ motivational general-mastery
+motivational general-arousal
+cognitive specific
+cognitive general
holmes and collins also outlined the 7 key elements of effective imagery: PETLEP
Physical
Environment
Task
Learning
Emotions
Perspective
describe Lagos’s study ?
Biofeedback - involves using electronic instruments to monitor change in physiological arousal. by seeing physiological arousal in real-time we can use breathing techniques mental imagery etc. to reduce anxiety.
Lagos carried out a study on heart rate variability on a 14-year old competitive Golfer.
- the boy met once a week to practice biofeedback
- he was taught breathing techniques
= following the biofeedback sessions he showed reduction in self-report negative mood-states.
= his competitive performance also improved
Describe Munroe and Chandlers study and apply it to motivation in sport.
Aim
The study aimed to investigate the relationship between imagery use, self-confidence and self-efficacy in young soccer players. Specifically, it looked at whether different types of mental imagery could enhance players’ belief in their abilities and confidence in performing well.
Sample
The sample consisted of 122 youth soccer players aged 11 to 14 years from Canada. Both male and female players participated, representing a range of skill levels in youth soccer.
Method/Procedure
The researchers used a questionnaire-based method to assess the participants’ use of imagery and levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy. Participants completed the Sports Imagery Questionnaire for Children (SIQ-C) to measure five types of imagery (e.g., cognitive and motivational). Self-confidence and self-efficacy were also measured through additional standardized scales, allowing the researchers to analyze the relationship between imagery use and these psychological factors.
Findings
The findings showed a positive correlation between certain types of imagery (especially motivational and cognitive general imagery) and higher levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy. This suggests that young soccer players who frequently use imagery techniques tend to have greater confidence in their skills and abilities.
Conclusion
The study concluded that imagery is a valuable mental tool for young athletes, as it can enhance self-confidence and self-efficacy, likely leading to better performance in sports. Coaches and trainers can use these findings to encourage imagery practice as a way to build confidence in young players.
application
(coaching practices/ game prep) In practical terms, the study suggests that imagery techniques could be incorporated into coaching practices to boost motivation. When athletes use imagery to mentally prepare for games, they are not only building confidence but also strengthening their motivation by setting mental expectations of success. This preparation encourages athletes to approach their sport with a proactive, motivated mindset. Therefore, Munroe-Chandler et al.’s research highlights the importance of mental skills training, like imagery, in enhancing both the motivation and performance of young athletes, providing valuable insights for coaches, trainers, and sports psychologists.
(goal setting) Munroe-Chandler et al.’s study also highlights how imagery can be utilized to improve goal-setting among young athletes. Athletes who engage in imagery that involves visualizing achieving specific goals (e.g., scoring a goal or mastering a routine) can enhance their ability to set realistic, measurable, and challenging objectives. This goal-setting process increases motivation by giving athletes a clear focus and a sense of purpose. For instance, a young football player might imagine successfully completing a penalty kick in a high-stakes game, which not only builds confidence but also fosters a stronger drive to practice and refine their technique. By integrating goal-focused imagery into training sessions, coaches can help athletes stay motivated and committed to achieving their personal and team targets. This demonstrates the broader value of mental skills training as a tool for improving performance and motivation in sports.
describe Vealey’s study
Vealey’s model of sports self-confidence breaks down confidence into trait and state components.
Trait sports confidence (SC-trait)
- refers to an athlete’s general, stable belief in their abilities across all sports or competitive contexts. It’s an enduring characteristic, meaning some individuals naturally have higher levels of confidence.
State sports confidence (SC-state)
-refers to an athlete’s belief in their abilities at a specific moment or situation, such as during a particular game or event.
The model also includes the influence of external factors, like competitive orientation (how competitive a person is), objective sport situation (the task or competition), and demands of the situation on the athlete’s confidence.
By recognizing the interplay between these different forms of self-confidence, the model helps explain how both general self-confidence and situational confidence influence performance in sports
describe Bandura’s study
Bandura’s model of sporting self-efficacy focuses on the belief that individuals have in their abilities to successfully execute specific actions necessary to achieve particular outcomes in sports. Four main factors influence self-efficacy:
Performance accomplishments (success increases self-efficacy)
Vicarious experience (observing others succeed boosts confidence)
Verbal persuasion (positive feedback and encouragement)
Emotional arousal (managing anxiety and stress)
High self-efficacy leads to increased effort, persistence, and resilience, contributing to better performance and motivation
extrinsic motivation
being motivated by external rewards such as prize money, high salaries, sponsorship deals, praise or encouragement from the coach, etc.)
intrinsic motivation.
involves participating in sport for enjoyment
describe Amorose and Horn (2001)
study
The study examined 72 American college athletes’ aged 17 to 19 intrinsic motivation across different sports. Before and after the season, athletes completed questionnaires on intrinsic motivation and perceptions of their coaches’ leadership behaviors. Results showed no significant difference in motivation between scholarship and non-scholarship athletes. However, positive relationships were found between intrinsic motivation and coaching styles: technical instruction increased motivation, while autocratic behavior decreased it. This suggests that supportive coaching techniques that involve instruction and positive feedback can enhance athletes’ intrinsic motivation over time.
describe Van Raalte’s study
Van Raalte et al. (1995) studied self-talk’s impact on dart-throwing accuracy with 60 male undergraduates assigned to positive self-talk, negative self-talk, or a control group. The positive self-talk group repeated “you can do it!” before 15 dart throws, while the negative group said “you cannot do it,” and the control group had no instructions. Results showed that positive self-talk significantly improved accuracy (p<0.05) compared to both the negative and control groups, which performed similarly, highlighting self-talk’s potential to enhance performance.
Describe Kroll and Crenshaws study and apply it to personality in sport.
Aim: To investigate whether athletes in different sports possess distinct personality traits.
Sample: The study involved 387 male athletes divided into four groups:
football players
wrestlers
gymnasts
karate athletes
Method: Participants completed the Cattell 16PF questionnaire, which measures 16 personality factors, to assess their personality traits. The results were compared across the four groups.
Results: Football players and wrestlers scored higher on traits like aggression and dominance.
Karate athletes showed high levels of self-discipline and emotional control.
Gymnasts were more creative and flexible.
Conclusion: The study concluded that specific sports attract individuals with distinct personality profiles, suggesting a relationship between personality traits and success in particular sports.
Part 2: Application to Personality in Sport (5 marks)
Point 1: (Personality traits can guide athletes to suitable sports.)
Application: This study supports the use of personality testing in helping individuals choose sports that align with their traits. For example, someone with high self-control and discipline might excel in karate, while a dominant, competitive person could thrive in contact sports like football.
Why it works: Matching personality to sport increases satisfaction and performance because individuals feel better suited to the sport’s demands.
Point 2: Coaches and selectors can use personality profiles for (talent identification.)
Application: Coaches could use the Cattell 16PF or similar tests during recruitment to identify athletes whose personality traits match their sport’s requirements. For instance, recruiting emotionally stable and disciplined individuals for karate ensures better performance under pressure.
Why it works: It improves the likelihood of long-term success, as athletes with aligned personalities are less likely to feel mismatched or burn out.
describe Kircaldy study.
participants were administered eyesnecks personality questionnaire.
this was done to investigate whether personality was different for athletes in team or individual sports
it was found that:
- participants in offensive positions had higher levels of psychtoism and extroversion score than midfield players.
-male defensive players tended to be more emotionally stable, than offensive players.
describe Eyesnecks study.
Eyesneck proposes that there are 3 dimensions:
1). Extrovert & Introvert
introverts try to avoid high levels of arousal, and extroverts seek high levels of arousal.
individualistic sports -> introverts
team sports -> extroverts
2). Emotionally stable & Emotionally unstable
emotionally unstable - likely to respond to negatively arousing situations quickly, due to fight or flight.
emotionally stable - likely to respond to negatively arousing situations more calmly and relaxed
3). Psychoticism
dpeends on the level of testosterone
Overall. Eyesnecks theory is quite reductionist as he states that there is only one factor that affects the relationship between personality and sport, and that is the type of the sport they take part in.
describe Cattels study.
Cattel proposed a trait theory of personality, which he argued was more detailed than Eyesnecks.
He proposed that there are 16 personality factors that people use to describe themsleves and others.
The profile of their score on the 16 dimensions represents their “personality”.
Cattel presented a 16PF questionnaire to measure personality.
Kroll and Crenshaw used Cattels 16PF questionnaire to investigate personality in a range of sports.
describe Aidmans study.
the study examined the personality profiles of 32 elite juinior AFL players, using Cattels 16PF questionnaire.
they found that, the players were more sociable but less driven.
7 years later they were followed up, of the 32 juniors, only 13 made it to the AFL.
those who made it reported less tension, stronger group orientation, and showed a preference for traditional values.
What is the Background to Lewis study (2014) ?
• Parkinson’s disease (PD) affects movement and includes cognitive, sleep, and psychological symptoms like depression and anxiety.
• Treating depression may improve cognitive function and quality of life.
• Exercise and dance can reduce anxiety, enhance mood, and improve well-being in PD patients.
• This study explores whether dance improves mood in PD patients short and long term.
What was the aim of Lewis study (2014) ?
The aim of this study, then, was to examine the effect of a dance intervention on mood in the elderly, specifically on a group of people with Parkinson’s disease, across a long cycle of 12 weeks and a short cycle of one hour.
What was the sample of Lewis study (2014) ?
37 people
Aged 50-80 yrs old
Recruited using local ads
Contacted through local PD support groups
22 of these had PD
15 of these were an aged-matched control group
How did Lewis study (2014) measure mood in the long cycle and short cycle ?
Long cycle: POMS, assessing six mood dimensions and total mood disturbance (TMD).
Short cycle: BRUMS, a shorter version of POMS measuring the same mood states.
What was the IV and DV of Lewis (2014) study ?
IV: PD status and cycle time (long: 12 weeks, short: before/after the ninth session).
DV: mood scores
What was the procedure of Lewis study (2014) ?
Participants gave fully informed consent, completed the Profile of Mood States (POMS) to assess their mood over the past month, and filled out a demographics questionnaire in Week 1.
• They attended weekly dance sessions for 10 weeks (Weeks 2–11), led by a qualified dance instructor. Each session lasted 50 minutes, consisting of:
• 10-minute warm-up
• 30 minutes of rhythmic dancing (suitable for those with mild to moderate PD)
• 5-minute break
• 5-minute cool-down
• Dance styles changed every two weeks, including Bollywood, Tango, Cheerleading, Old Time Music Hall, and Party Dancing (Charleston and Saturday Night Fever). Participants could sit if needed.
• Week 9: Participants completed the Brunel University Mood Scale (BRUMS) before and after the session to measure short-term mood changes.
• Week 12 (a few days after the final dance session): Participants completed POMS again to assess long-term mood changes.
What were the findings of Lewis study (2014) ?
No significant difference in baseline depression scores between PD and control participants.
• Participants classified as highly depressed (POMS score ≥7) reported reduced fatigue after dance sessions.
• BRUMS results showed a short-term mood improvement after dance.
What were the results of Lewis study (2014) ?
• Participants: Data from 30 participants (17 PD, 13 control) were recorded, with some dropouts and exclusions.
• Baseline differences: PD participants had higher tension, confusion, vigour, and TMD scores than POMS geriatric norms, while controls did not differ.
• Mood disturbance: PD participants had higher TMD scores than controls throughout the study.
• Long-term improvement: Significant reduction in mood disturbance over time for all participants, with notable decreases in anger.
What did Lewis conclude from his study (2014) ?
The researchers suggest that participating in weekly dance classes can significantly improve mood in both the elderly with and without PD. They propose two reasons for this:
1. Dance provides mental challenges (memory, learning, and spatial awareness).
2. Dance is a sociable exercise, which helps combat loneliness, a factor linked to depression, and improves mood.
What was Steinberg and Sykes study about ?
The endorphin hypothesis.
This suggests that vigorous exercise stimulates the release of beta-endorphins, natural painkillers produced by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. These endorphins, chemically similar to morphine, bind to opiate receptor sites in the nervous system, reducing pain and triggering changes in synaptic plasticity. This may explain why exercise can lead to feelings of euphoria, often referred to as the “runner’s high,” and helps athletes endure intense physical activity.
What was Boecker’s study about ?
The study aimed to investigate the neuro-chemical basis of the runner’s high by recruiting 10 male athletes. Participants were selected based on their running habits and experience with euphoria during exercise. They underwent two PET scans: one at rest and one 30 minutes after a 2-hour run. Mood changes were measured using the Visual Analog Mood Scale (VAMS). The results showed significant increases in happiness and euphoria, which were linked to changes in opioid receptor binding in brain regions like the pre-frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and insula cortex. This suggests that endorphin levels increase in these areas after exercise, contributing to the feeling of euphoria.
What were McNair (1971) POMS ?
The Profile of Mood States (POMS), developed by McNair et al. (1971), measures six mood states: five negative (tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion) and one positive (vigour).
Respondents complete a 65-item questionnaire, indicating how they have felt over the past week on a five-point scale.
Each mood state is quantified, and scores are summed to create a mood profile, which can be plotted as a line graph.
The POMS allows for the comparison of pre- and post-exercise mood changes and offers a general measure of depression.
In Lewis et al.’s (2014) research, the POMS was used to assess mood changes in Parkinson’s disease patients following a dance intervention.
What was Peacock’s study about ?
Green exercise, which involves outdoor physical activities, was investigated by Peacock, Hine, and Pretty to assess its effects on mood.
Participants (20 people aged 31-70 from a local MIND group) took part in two one-hour walks, one outdoors at Belhus Country Park and the other indoors at Lakeside shopping centre. Mood and self-esteem were measured before and after the walks using the Profile of Mood States (POMS).
The results showed that the outdoor walk led to a significant improvement in mood, with reductions in anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension, and increased vigour and self-esteem (p<0.01). In contrast, the indoor walk showed only a slight change in mood disturbance. Participants reported that outdoor walking was effective due to the fresh air, scenic surroundings, social interaction, and the enjoyment of nature.
What was the aim of Smith’s (1979) study ?
Smith et al. developed the Coach Effectiveness Training (CET) programme to improve youth sports by enhancing coach-player relationships.
Based on a study of 51 Little League coaches and 542 players, coaches were observed, and players were later interviewed. The findings led to guidelines for good coaching practices.
What was the aim of Smith’s study ?
The CET programme aimed to increase coaches’ awareness of their behaviour, its impact, and how to develop positive coaching skills. It sought to improve coach-player and teammate relationships while reducing negative interactions.
What did Smith predict ?
The authors predicted that CET would enhance positive interactions and have a greater impact on players with low self-esteem.
What was the sample of Smith’s study ?
A sample of 34 male Little League baseball coaches (average age 36, with eight years of experience) was recruited from a previous study. Eighteen were randomly assigned to the experimental group, receiving CET training, while 16 were in the control group with no training. All 18 in the experimental group attended the training, while three from the control group dropped out, leaving a final sample of 31 coaches.
What was the procedure of Smith’s study ?
Procedure of the CET Programme
1. Training Session:
• Experimental coaches attended a two-hour session where they learned about the previous study’s findings and received coaching guidelines.
• Guidelines were presented verbally and in a brochure, with examples of desirable and undesirable behaviors.
2. Coaching Guidelines: • Emphasized reinforcement, encouragement, and technical instruction. • Aimed to improve coach-player relationships and reduce fear of failure. • Example: Coaches were advised to encourage players after mistakes rather than punish them.
- Coaching ‘Do’s and Don’ts’ (Example):
• DO: Encourage immediately after mistakes, give corrective instruction positively, and emphasize what good things will happen if instructions are followed.
• DON’T: Punish mistakes or show disapproval, as it increases fear of failure. - Self-Monitoring & Feedback:
• Coaches received behavioral feedback in the first two weeks.
• They self-monitored their behaviors after each of the first ten matches, reporting their use of desirable coaching practices.
• Reports were sent to researchers to ensure adherence.
How were the variables measured in Smith’s study ?
Measurement of Variables
1. Observed Coach Behaviors:
• 16 trained undergraduate observers used the Coaching Behavioural Assessment System (CBAS) to assess coaches’ behaviors in 12 categories (e.g., reinforcement, encouragement, punishment).
• Each coach was covertly observed over four games, with observers unaware of the coach’s experimental condition.
2. Player Perceptions & Attitudes: • 325 boys (82% of the total sample) were interviewed at home at the end of the season. • They rated their coach’s behavior using CBAS items on a 7-point scale (e.g., frequency of encouragement). • They also rated their own ability, attitudes toward playing, and attitudes toward their coach. 3. Player Self-Esteem: • After the interview, boys completed a general self-esteem test.
What were the results of Smith’s study ?
Results Summary
1. Observed Behaviors:
• No overall differences in behavior between experimental and control coaches.
• Experimental coaches used reinforcement more frequently (p < 0.05).
• Experimental coaches also used more mistake-contingent encouragement and general technical instruction, while using less non-reinforcement, punishment, and punitive technical instruction.
2. Player Attitudes: • No difference in liking baseball between the two groups. • Boys in the experimental condition: • Enjoyed playing for their coach more (p < 0.001). • Wanted to be coached by them again (p < 0.001). • Rated their coach higher as a teacher (p < 0.01). • Had a more positive relationship with their teammates (p < 0.001).
What was Tuckman’s study ?
Tuckman’s Four-Stage Model of Group Cohesion Development (1965):
• Forming: Team members meet and seek acceptance.
• Storming: Conflict arises as members vie for position, leading to frustration.
• Norming: Team members agree on goals, performance standards, and roles.
• Performing: Conflicts are resolved, and the team focuses on achieving tasks.
3. Characteristics of Cohesive Teams:
• Shared goals, team identity, respect, trust, good communication, and cooperation.
What is social cohesion ?
Team members like each other and feel satisfaction from being part of the team.
What is task cohesion ?
Team members work together to achieve shared goals.
What is Carron (1997) study ?
Carron et al. (1997) developed a four-point model for team building:
- team distinctiveness (e.g., wearing a uniform),
-social cohesion (e.g., team events), -clear team goals (e.g., setting daily goals),
-team communication (e.g., regular meetings).
They also provided practical tips for coaches, including ensuring players understand roles, encouraging pride in sub-team achievements, involving players in decisions, emphasizing individual importance, allowing disagreements, and maintaining a positive focus even in tough times.
What is Senegal (2008) study ?
Senecal (2008) studied the impact of a season-long team-building intervention on cohesion in 86 female high-school basketball players.
Teams were randomly assigned to a goal-setting group or a control group, with cohesion measured using the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) at the start and end of the season. The goal-setting group identified key performance indicators, set team goals collaboratively, and reviewed them throughout the season.
Results showed that while both groups had similar cohesion at the start, the goal-setting group had significantly higher social and task cohesion by the end of the season.
What is the Background to Zajonc study ?
Zajonc et al. theorised that the presence of others is a source of general drive.
What is the drive theory ?
Drive theory suggests that arousal increases in the presence of others, and that this affects performance.
It improves performance for a well-learned or easy task, but impedes performance for a novel or complex task.
What was the Aim of Zajonc study ?
The authors aimed to provide evidence for the drive theory using cockroaches.
What was the sample in Zajonc study ?
72 adult female cockroaches
Studies for 1 week
Kept individually in jars with screened lids, in the dark
Temperature of 24 degrees
Fed peeled and sliced apple
What was the apparatus used in Zajonc study ?
Zajonc et al. designed an experiment using cockroach “runs” within a 20 x 20 x 20 inch Perspex cube to test the effects of an audience on performance. There were two tasks:
• The easy task was a straight runway from a start box to a goal box with a dark interior to attract the cockroach. • The complex task was a maze requiring the cockroach to make a right turn to reach the goal.
Both tasks had a black Bakelite floor (2 inches wide) and Perspex walls (1 inch high). A 150-watt floodlight was placed behind the start box to encourage movement. Additionally, four see-through Perspex boxes around the setup housed spectator cockroaches to act as an “audience.”
What was the procedure in Zajonc study ?
The study used photophobic cockroaches to test the effects of social presence on performance.
The cockroaches’ task was to run from a start box to a goal box when a floodlight was turned on, and their performance was timed.
The floodlight was the only light source during testing.
Three conditions were used:
1. Alone condition: Cockroaches ran the maze alone to establish a baseline performance.
2. Co-action condition: Two cockroaches ran together, testing whether social presence improved performance on an easy task (runway) but impaired performance on a complex task (maze).
3. Audience condition: Four cockroaches were placed in transparent audience boxes around the setup to measure the effect of passive spectators. This controlled for the possibility that improvements were due to imitation rather than arousal.
Each trial followed the same procedure: the cockroach(es) were placed in the start box, the floodlight was turned on, and the sliding door opened. Performance was recorded based on how quickly they reached the goal box. The setup was cleaned with alcohol between trials.
What were the results of Zajonc study ?
Zajonc et al. found that social presence affected performance differently depending on task difficulty:
• Runway (easy task): Co-acting cockroaches were the fastest, followed by those with an audience, while lone cockroaches were the slowest.
• Maze (complex task): Lone cockroaches were the fastest, followed by those with an audience, while co-acting cockroaches were the slowest.
These results support drive theory, showing that the presence of others enhances performance on simple tasks but hinders performance on complex tasks.
What was Michael’s (1982) study ?
Tested the prediction made by Drive Theory that the presence of an audience would improve performance in a dominant task (for more skilled players) and inhibit performance of a non-dominant task.
Initially 12 student pool players were observed from a distance in the student union and their shot potting accuracy was recorded so that they could be classified as above- or below-average (6 participants in each condition).
The 4 researchers then stood around the table where the students were playing and again observed their performance. The above-average players’ shot accuracy increased from 71% to 80% when the audience were present, whereas the below-average players shot accuracy decreased from 36% to 25%.
What is Cottrell’s (1968) study ?
Cottrell (1968) proposed the evaluation apprehension theory, which suggests that social inhibition occurs due to the performer’s fear of being judged by an audience. The audience can either approve and reward or disapprove and punish, leading to increased anxiety, which negatively affects performance. The theory also suggests that more expert audiences create greater anxiety, explaining why athletes may struggle in competitions despite performing well in training.
However, this theory does not fully explain why an audience sometimes enhances performance, indicating that other factors, such as home advantage, may also influence outcomes.
What was the historical view of mental illness, demonic possession ?
In pre-modern societies, madness was commonly believed to result from possession by various spirits, including those of ancestors, animals, gods, heroes, or individuals who had been wronged.
These spirits could take control of a person through their own cunning, the actions of a sorcerer, or the possessed individual’s lack of faith.
To cure such conditions, some ancient cultures practiced trephining—drilling or chipping holes into the skull—to provide an exit for the trapped spirits. Skulls from Paleolithic cave dwellers show evidence of this practice, suggesting it was an early form of treatment for perceived spiritual possession.
What is the historical view on mental illness, humourism ?
Hippocrates’ theory of physiology linked mental health to the balance of four bodily humours: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm.
An imbalance in these fluids was believed to cause mental disorders.
Excess phlegm led to sluggishness,
black bile to melancholia,
yellow bile to irritability and anxiety,
too much blood to a changeable temperament.
What is the historical view on mental illness, animalism ?
Early treatment of the mentally ill was often brutal, as seen in institutions like St. Mary’s of Bethlehem (Bedlam) in London, where patients were chained to walls or kept on leashes.
In the U.S., Pennsylvania Hospital, founded in 1756, confined “lunatics” to the cellar,
where they were subjected to harsh treatments such as bloodletting, purging, and physical restraint. At the time, insanity was believed to stem from a loss of reason, making the insane more like animals.
Fear was seen as the best way to restore rationality, leading to severe punishments. However, by the late 18th century, growing opposition from respected voices began to challenge these cruel methods, advocating for more humane treatment.
What is the historical view on mental illness, moral treatment ?
Philippe Pinel, a French physician, was instrumental in reforming the treatment of the mentally ill.
Initially studying literature and theology, he later earned his M.D. in 1773. Moving to Paris in 1778, he developed an interest in mental disorders.
In 1792, as chief physician at the Bicêtre asylum, he introduced humane treatment by removing chains from patients and allowing them outdoor exercise, successfully improving their conditions. Rejecting the idea that mental illness was caused by demonic possession, he proposed psychological stress, congenital conditions, or physiological injury as causes. He emphasized compassionate care, doctor-patient interaction, and detailed case histories. In 1795, he introduced similar reforms at Salpêtrière.
His work contributed to shifting mental illness explanations from supernatural causes to biological (somatogenic) and psychological (psychogenic) theories, shaping modern psychiatric care.
What is the history behind the way mental disorders are categorised ?
The medical model of mental illness, developed by Emil Kraepelin, classifies disorders based on recurring symptom patterns. In 1896, he identified dementia praecox (schizophrenia) and manic-depressive psychosis, linking them to biological causes. His work influenced the DSM and ICD classification systems and shaped the 1983 Mental Health Act in England and Wales.
What is the book used to categorise mental health disorders in the US ?
DSM-5
What is the DSM-5 ?
The DSM-5 is organized by developmental stages, starting with disorders that appear early in life, followed by those in adolescence and adulthood.
It groups disorders into internalising disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety) and externalizing disorders (e.g., impulsive and disruptive behaviors).
This structure aims to reflect clinical reality and improve utility.
What are gender-related diagnostic issues with DSM-5 ?
Gender-related issues in the DSM-5 include differences in the expression of certain disorders.
For example, in hoarding disorder, while the core symptoms (difficulty discarding items and excessive clutter) are similar in both genders, females tend to show more excessive acquisition, particularly through buying, compared to males.
What are culture-related diagnostic issues with DSM-5 ?
Culture-related diagnostic issues in the DSM-5 recognize that certain behaviors may be culturally accepted or hold spiritual, medicinal, or social significance.
For example, eating nonnutritive substances like earth may be a normal practice in some cultures and not warrant a diagnosis of pica.
What is diagnostic criteria ?
The DSM-III introduced diagnostic criteria specifying symptoms and timeframes a patient must exhibit, following Rosenhan’s 1973 field experiment.
These criteria aimed to improve the reliability of diagnoses (ensuring consistency among clinicians) and their validity (ensuring the diagnoses are accurate).
What is the Background to Rosenhans (1973) study ?
Rosenhan wanted to see if it was possible to tell the difference between sanity and insanity in a person, and whether hospitals really could tell the difference between someone who is sane and someone who is insane.
What was the method of Rosenhans study ?
Rosenhan’s study used a field experiment
8 pseudopatients attempted to gain admission to 12 psychiatric hospitals across the USA.
The hospitals varied in size, funding, and staffing levels.
Each pseudopatient pretended to experience auditory hallucinations, reporting hearing the words “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” Apart from this symptom, they provided truthful personal details but concealed any medical background.
Once admitted, they stopped showing any symptoms and behaved normally, interacting with staff and patients.
They complied with hospital routines but did not swallow the medication given to them. Throughout their stay, they observed and documented their experiences, only leaving when officially discharged.
What was Rosenhans sample ?
The participants were the people in the hospital - not the pseudopatients.
Data was collected on the other patients and the medical staff in the hospitals.
In all, 12 hospitals were included in the study.
Only in one did the hospital administrator and chief psychologist know what Rosenhan (himself the first pseudopatient) was doing.
What were the results from Rosenhans study ?
Rosenhan’s study found that psychiatric staff were unable to distinguish between real patients and pseudopatients pretending to be mentally ill, with all but one pseudopatient diagnosed with schizophrenia. Staff were biased towards diagnosing illness, making it harder to detect sanity. In a follow-up study, hospital staff were told that pseudopatients would try to gain admission, yet they mistakenly identified real patients as pseudopatients, showing that psychiatric diagnoses can be highly unreliable. This highlighted the flaws in distinguishing between sanity and insanity.
What did the researchers do whilst in the hospitals in Rosenhans study, and what were the results ?
In the study, a pseudopatient in four hospitals asked staff polite questions, such as about discharge or grounds privileges,
but only 6% of psychiatrists and 2.5% of nurses or attendants stopped to answer.
In contrast, at Stanford University, where a young female student asked various questions, all questions were answered, and people did not walk away. However, when the student mentioned she was “looking for a psychiatrist,” the response rate dropped, highlighting how the mere hint of mental illness significantly reduced interpersonal interactions.
What did Rosenhan conclude from his study ?
The study suggested that instead of hospitalizing patients with labels, community-based therapy should be used to treat specific behaviors. Hospital staff weren’t malicious but were influenced by the environment, highlighting the need for better training and empathy.
However, the study’s relevance may be limited today, as it was conducted in the 1970s.
Characteristics of Depression (affective disorder) ?
DSM-5 (Major Depressive Episode)
• Symptoms: At least five symptoms must be present for two weeks, including either depressed mood or loss of interest.
• Additional Symptoms: Weight loss, insomnia or excessive sleep, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, thoughts of death or suicide.
• Impact: Symptoms must cause significant distress or impairment in functioning and cannot be attributed to another condition or substance.
Characteristics of schizophrenia (psychotic disorder) ?
DSM-5: Schizophrenia
• Symptoms: At least two of the following must be present for one month, with at least one being delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech:
1. Delusions
2. Hallucinations
3. Disorganized speech
4. Disorganized or catatonic behavior
5. Negative symptoms (e.g., diminished emotional expression)
• Functioning: Must be below the individual’s level of functioning before the onset of symptoms (e.g., difficulties with self-care or academic performance).
• Duration: Symptoms must persist for at least six months, even if at a minor level.
• Exclusion: Symptoms should not be attributed to other disorders or substances.
What are the characteristics of an anxiety disorder (phobia) ?
DSM-5: Agoraphobia
• Situations: Marked fear or anxiety about two or more of the following:
1. Using public transport
2. Being in open spaces
3. Being in enclosed places
4. Standing in line or in a crowd
5. Being outside the home alone
• Response: These situations almost always trigger anxiety and are actively avoided or require a companion.
• Proportionality: Fear is excessive and out of proportion to the actual danger, even if another condition (e.g., IBS) causes anxiety.
• Duration: Symptoms persist for at least six months.
• Impact: Causes significant distress and impairment in daily functioning.
• Exclusion: Not due to another disorder or external factors like past trauma.
What does the Biological explanation for mental health suggest ?
that imbalances in neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, are linked to psychological disorders. Just as a lack of insulin causes diabetes, chemical imbalances in the brain may contribute to conditions like depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety.
What is the name of the key neurotransmitter which helps transmits messages across neurons and is related to depression ?
Serotonin
What happens if you have low serotonin levels ?
Low serotonin levels have been associated with depression, leading to treatments like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which prevent serotonin from being reabsorbed too quickly, increasing its effect. However, research is mixed on whether low serotonin directly causes depression.
What neurotransmitter is related to schizophrenia?
Dopamine
- with an overactive dopamine system thought to contribute to symptoms. Antipsychotic drugs work by blocking dopamine receptors to regulate its effects. Additionally, drugs like cocaine and heroin affect dopamine levels, which may explain their link to psychotic disorders.
Overall what does the biological explanation for mental health pose ?
That biochemical imbalances cause mental illness.
What neurotransmitter is anxiety associated with ?
serotonin and norepinephrine, leading to treatments like serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). However, the evidence is debated, and drug companies may influence perceptions of chemical imbalance theories.
What does the genetic explanations for mental health suggest ?
certain disorders may be inherited from parents, similar to traits like eye color or body shape. While inheriting a disorder is not guaranteed, genetic predisposition can increase the likelihood of developing conditions like depression or schizophrenia, especially when combined with environmental factors.
How does evolutionary theory support genetic explanations for mental health ?
the idea that some behaviors, such as phobias, may have been passed down because they aided survival. Ohman (1975) found that people were more likely to develop a fear response to images of snakes than to images of houses or faces, supporting the idea that phobias may have an evolutionary basis.
What does the brain abnormalities explanation for mental illness suggest ?
structural differences in the brain may contribute to psychological disorders. However, research has struggled to determine whether these abnormalities cause the disorder or result from it.
Who does Browns (1986) study support the brain abnormalities explanation for mental health ?
Brown et al. (1986) found that schizophrenic patients’ brains were 6% lighter and had larger lateral ventricles than those with affective disorders, suggesting loss of brain matter in the temporal lobe.
How do brain scans (PET scans) reveal differences in brain activity across various stages of bipolar disorder ?
showing how brain function changes throughout mood cycles. However, it is unclear whether these abnormalities directly cause mental illness, as some people with similar brain differences may not experience symptoms.
What treatments does the abnormalities explanation for mental illness suggest ?
drug therapy to address abnormal brain activity. In some cases, surgery may be used, such as for brain tumors causing symptoms of mental illness.
What is the Background to Gottesman’s study ?
If we accept that previous research has found a link between one parent having a mental disorder and an increased incidence of that mental disorder in the child, then it should follow that having two parents with a psychiatric illness would increase the risk (to super-high risk) of the child having this or a similar disorder.
What was the aim of Gottesman’s study ?
The study aimed to investigate, using a large sample, the likelihood of children developing a psychiatric disorder when both parents had been diagnosed with one.
The researchers were particularly interested in whether children would develop the same disorder as their parents or a related mental illness.
What was the sample of Gottesman’s study ?
The study used data from the Civil Registration System in Denmark, including individuals born in or after 1968 with known biological parents. The final sample included 2,685,301 people and their parents, covering 1,278,977 couples (some with multiple children).
Participants were identified using the Psychiatric Central Register, focusing on those diagnosed with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression. The study specifically examined children of couples where both parents had been admitted to a psychiatric hospital.
What were the 3 control groups included in Gottesman’s study ?
- Children with one parent admitted.
- Children with neither parent admitted.
- A general population group where parental psychiatric history was unknown.
What was the method of Gottesman’s study ?
Children of the identified couples (aged up to 52 years) were checked in the Psychiatric Central Register for any mental disorder diagnosis. Diagnoses were classified based on ICD-8 and ICD-10 criteria, using the discharge diagnosis from hospital records.
Participants were divided into four groups:
• Group A: Both parents had been admitted with the same psychiatric disorder.
• Group B: Only one parent had been admitted with a psychiatric disorder.
• Group C: Neither parent had been admitted with a psychiatric disorder.
• Group D: No restrictions or data on parental admissions (general population baseline).
This method ensured a large-scale, reliable analysis of how parental psychiatric illness influences offspring mental health.
Did gottesman have to get consent from the participants ?
Since the data was publicly available and anonymised, ethical consent was not required from the Danish Ethics Committee.
What were the results of Gottesman’s study ?
Overall Risk of Any Psychiatric Disorder by Age 52:
• 67.5% of offspring with both parents diagnosed with schizophrenia had been admitted for a psychiatric disorder.
What did Gottesman’s study conclude ?
Gottesman’s study reinforced previous smaller studies by demonstrating a strong genetic link in psychiatric disorders using a large and robust sample size.
However, he acknowledged several ethical and practical considerations:
• Health System Differences: Results may vary in countries where healthcare is privately funded, affecting diagnosis and treatment rates.
• Practical Implications: The findings could help individuals make informed decisions about marriage, children, and future planning, but Gottesman stressed the importance of well-informed counsellors to guide such decisions.
What were some limitations of Gottesman’s study’s results ?
• Bipolar disorder and depression are underrepresented, as they are often treated outside hospital settings.
• Psychiatric ward capacity is decreasing, leading to shorter hospital stays rather than fewer admissions.
What are SSRI’s ?
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly used to treat anxiety disorders by increasing serotonin levels in the brain.
Explain how SSRIs work to treat anxiety disorder ?
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood. Normally, serotonin is released into the synapse and binds to receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron to transmit signals. However, some serotonin is reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron, which can lead to insufficient levels and contribute to anxiety. SSRIs block this reuptake, ensuring more serotonin remains in the synapse, improving neural communication and reducing anxiety symptoms.
What are the benefits of SSRI’s ?
• Effective for various anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, PTSD, OCD, GAD).
• Safe for medically ill or frail patients and in overdose situations.
• No withdrawal effects unless stopped abruptly, and no dependency risk.
• Do not typically cause weight gain.
What are the negatives of SSRI’s ?
• Slow onset: Therapeutic effects take 4-6 weeks, with full benefits at 12 weeks.
• Initial worsening of anxiety in the first two weeks.
• Expensive and can cause flu-like withdrawal symptoms if stopped suddenly.
• Sexual dysfunction occurs in 35-40% of patients, making it a major drawback.
What is a non-drug treatment used to treat anxiety disorder ?
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
What is CBT ?
involves recognizing unhelpful thoughts, challenging them, and using behavioral techniques to develop healthier coping strategies. It is typically short-term and structured, with a focus on practical problem-solving and skill-building.
What is the cognitive explanation of mental illness ?
suggests that mental illnesses arise from faulty thinking patterns, which can be challenged and modified through therapy.
focuses on faulty thought processes as the cause of disorders. People with mental illnesses, such as depression, tend to have irrational cognitions and distorted thinking.
What is the key theory Beck’s Negative Cognitive Triad (1961): Cognitive explanation for mental health ?
People with depression have three dysfunctional beliefs:
• “I am worthless.” • “Everything I do results in failure.” • “The future is hopeless.”
These negative thoughts lead to selective attention to negative experiences, reinforcing depressive symptoms.
What is the key theory Ellis’s Irrational Beliefs: Cognitive explanation for mental health ?
• People with mental disorders may have unrealistic expectations (e.g., “I must be outstandingly competent, or I am worthless”).
• These unattainable standards lead to frustration, disappointment, and depression.
What is the cognitive explanation of Schizophrenia ?
While biological factors play a role, Beck suggested that cognitive deficits (e.g., poor memory, attention issues) contribute to schizophrenia.
• The diathesis-stress model suggests that genetic predisposition interacts with environmental stressors to trigger the disorder.
What are some Cognitive based treatments ?
Cognitive Therapy (Beck):
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) (Ellis):
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT):
• Combines cognitive and behavioural approaches to treat disorders like depression, anxiety, PTSD, OCD, and even schizophrenia.
• Focuses on the present thoughts and behaviours rather than past experiences.
• Can be individual or group-based and typically lasts up to 20 sessions.
• Morrison et al. (2014) found that CBT reduced symptoms of schizophrenia in patients who refused antipsychotic drugs.
What is Cognitive therapy (Beck) ?
Helps patients modify distorted thinking through discussion and cognitive restructuring. Patients learn to challenge negative thoughts and develop emotional regulation skills.
What is Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) (Ellis) ?
Therapists help clients identify and change self-defeating beliefs (e.g., proving to a mother with post-natal depression that she is a good mother through journaling her positive actions).
What is the Behaviourist explanation of mental illness ?
The behaviourist explanation of mental illness suggests that disorders are learned and maintained through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory.
1. Classical Conditioning: Some mental illnesses, particularly phobias, develop when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a fear-inducing stimulus. 2. Operant Conditioning: Behaviours are reinforced through rewards or the removal of negative experiences. Negative reinforcement maintains anxiety disorders—for example, avoiding lifts reduces anxiety, reinforcing the phobia. Depression may also be reinforced if attention is given to those showing symptoms. 3. Social Learning Theory: Mental illnesses, such as depression, can be learned by observing and imitating role models who display unhealthy coping mechanisms, such as withdrawal and mood swings.
What is an example of operant conditioning for the behaviourist explanation for mental health ?
An example is the Little Albert experiment, where a loud noise was paired with a white rat, causing Albert to develop a phobia of the rat and similar objects.
What are some treatments for mental illness based on Behavioural theories ?
Systematic desensitisation
Flooding
Aversion therapy
Positive reinforcement
What is the psychodynamic explanation of mental illness ?
suggests that mental illness arises from unconscious conflicts, particularly those stemming from childhood.
These conflicts occur between the id (instincts), ego (rational self), and superego (morality), leading to anxiety and abnormal behaviour. If unresolved, these conflicts can manifest as personality disorders, depression, or even psychotic disorders like schizophrenia.
What did Freud believe about the Psychodynamic explanation ?
Freud believed that overuse of ego defense mechanisms—such as denial, repression, and distortion—can also contribute to mental health issues.
What are Psychodynamic Treatment ?
Psychoanalysis:
Psychoanalysis aims to uncover and resolve unconscious conflicts. Techniques include:
• Dream Analysis – Interpreting the latent (hidden) meanings behind dreams.
• Free Association – Encouraging patients to speak freely to reveal unconscious thoughts.
What is systematic desensitisation ?
Uses relaxation techniques and gradual exposure to feared stimuli to replace fear with calmness
(e.g., McGrath et al., 1990, with Lucy’s fear of loud noises).
What is Flooding ?
Direct exposure to the feared object until anxiety subsides, though it can sometimes reinforce the phobia.
What is Aversion Therapy ?
Creates negative associations
(e.g., pairing alcohol with nausea-inducing drugs).
What is Szasz opinion mental health (the myth of mental illness) in both 1960 and 2011 ?
In his original 1960 essay, Thomas Szasz argued that mental illness is not a medical condition but a societal construct, where behaviours deemed uncomfortable by others are labelled as illnesses to justify treatment. He criticised coercive psychiatric methods used in the 1950s.
In his 2011 follow-up essay, presented at the Royal College of Psychiatrists, Szasz reassessed his earlier claims. He maintained that treating mental illness as a disease harms patients rather than helps them. For instance, medicating individuals to prevent self-harm ignores their autonomy and contributes to the rise of “pseudoscientific” approaches like suicidology. He concluded that mental illness remains trapped in a “moral morass,” questioning the ethical foundations of psychiatric treatment.
What is Systematic Desensitisation ?
A behaviourist treatment of anxiety disorder.
therapy based on classical conditioning to treat fears, phobias, and anxieties. It works by replacing conditioned fear with relaxation through counter-conditioning.
The process involves three stages:
1. Hierarchy Construction – Identifying and ranking fear-inducing situations from least to most distressing.
2. Relaxation Training – Learning deep muscle relaxation, breathing control, and visualisation techniques.
3. Gradual Exposure – Facing fears step by step while practicing relaxation until the fear response is eliminated.
What is Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) ?
A cognitive treatment of anxiety disorder.
The cognitive approach focuses on cognitive restructuring, where irrational, stress-inducing thoughts are replaced with more realistic and constructive beliefs. A key therapy in this approach is Rational Emotive Therapy (RET), developed by Albert Ellis, which identifies faulty thinking patterns that exaggerate threats and cause anxiety.
RET follows the A-B-C-D-E model:
1. A (Activating event) – A situation that triggers emotional distress (e.g., encountering a phobic stimulus).
2. B (Belief) – An irrational belief about the event (e.g., “If I go up a tall building, I will fall and die”).
3. C (Consequence) – The behavioural and emotional response, such as avoidance.
4. D (Disputing beliefs) – Challenging irrational thoughts through logical, empirical, and pragmatic questioning.
5. E (Effects) – The restructuring of beliefs to reduce anxiety and improve coping.
By disputing irrational thoughts, RET helps individuals develop a more rational and balanced perspective, reducing anxiety and phobic responses.
What is Schwartz and Barksy (1977) study ?
Schwartz and Barsky (1977) investigated home advantage in sports by analyzing large datasets from baseball, basketball, American football, and ice hockey. They examined:
• 1,880 Major League Baseball games (1971)
• 182 professional football games (1971)
• 910 college football games (1971)
• 542 National Hockey League games (1971-72)
• 15 years of college basketball data (1952-66)
Results showed that in all four sports, home teams won more than 50% of games:
• Baseball & Ice Hockey: 53%
• Professional Football: 55%
• College Football: 59%
• Basketball: 82% (strongest effect)
Schwartz and Barsky suggested that offensive play improves more than defensive play at home, particularly in basketball, where factors like crowd density and intimacy (rather than crowd size) may enhance home advantage.
