Unit 2: core studies, areas, perspective's, and debates Flashcards
what a the 5 areas ?
social area
development area
cognitive area
biological area
individual difference’s area
what is the principle of the social area ?
The main influence on our behaviour is other people
what are some concepts from the social area ?
Conformity, diffusion of responsibility, the bystander effect, responses to authority, responses to people in need, simpatia culture, whistle-blowing, the arousal-cost reward model.
what are 3 applications of the social area ?
- Using CCTV to deter crime
- Managers/teachers to wear formal clothing
- Companies to have an app or website to allow employees to blow the whistle
what are the 4 studies from the social area ?
milgram
bocchiaro
piliavin
levine
how does Milgrams study link to the area, and why ?
MILGRAM
Shows that other people (authority figures) have a large influence on behaviour (majority went to 450V when instructed by the experimenter).
how does Piliavins study link to the area, and why ?
PILIAVIN
Level of help depends on the appearance of the victim - whether they appeared to be ill or drunk. Also investigated diffusion of responsibility (whether having more people present influences helping).
how does bocchiaros study link to the social area ?
BOCCHIARO
Showed that people still obey authority figures even when it would be easier to disobey/blow the whistle (most recommended the unethical research and did not report it).
how does Levines study link to the social area ?
LEVINE
Suggests that culture affects level of help given (countries with higher PPP were less helpful; simpatia cultures were more helpful).
what are the strengths of the social area ?
+ Can help us understand the causes of historical events
+ Has practical applications (e.g. for managers wanting compliance from employees)
+ Research is often high in ecological validity when field experiments are used
what are the weaknesses of the social area ?
- Research can lack controls on extraneous variables
- Research can be ethnocentric (i.e. only reflect social behaviour in one culture)
- Research can get out of date (e.g. as social behaviour changes)
what is the background of Milgram’s study ?
following WW2 , historians suggested that some Germans must have had some form of basic defect that allowed them to blindly obey there authority figures and commit such atrocities
what was the aim of Milgram’s study aim ?
the aim of the study was to investigate the process of obedience by testing how far ordinary Americans would go in obeying authority figures
what was the sampling method of Milgram’s study ?
self -selected
what was the sample of milgrams study?
40 male participants aged from 20-50 years old
what is the procedure of Milgram’s study ?
1). you are greeted by an experimenter in a grey lab coat and he introduces you to a middle aged salesman, Mr Wallace, who tells you he is also taking part in the study (secretly in on the experiment)
2). you and Mr Wallace each seemingly randomly pick a role in the experiment. you get the role of the teacher and Mr Wallace gets the role of the learner.
3). you see him strapped into a chair with electrodes attached to his arms.
4). you are then given a trial shock of 45v..
5). the learner has been given a set of word pairs to remember and the teachers task is to check that he remembers them correctly.
6). the teacher then reads a single word, along with 4 options for the learner to choose from.
7). the learner task is to decide which of the 4 options of words was paired with the first word.
8). if the learner answers it incorrectly, you are told by the experimenter to give him and electric shock.
9). every time the answer is wrong, you must increase the voltage of the shock administered by 15v each time, up to a maximum of 450v.
10). at 300v, the learner shows the first sign of distress by banging on the wall.
11). after 300v, he stops answering the questions. the experimenter tells you to treat this as an incorrect answer and to continue to administer the shocks.
what are the 4 prods? Milgram
please continue
the experiment requires that you continue
it is absolutely essential that you continue.
you have no other choice, you must go on.
what are the findings of Milgrams study ?
14 final year psychology students predicted that only an insignificant minority would go through to the end of the shock series.
the actual number of people who went up to 450v was 65%.
what were some qualitative findings? Milgram
participants were observed to sweat, tremble, stutter, bite their lips, groan, and dig their fingernails into their flesh.
14 showed nervous laughter
3 had full-blown seizures.
what are the conclusions of Milgram’s study ?
Milgram concluded that it was the situation that produces strong tendencies to obey (most people are capable of harming others if told to by a perceived authority figure)
The situation also causes extraordinary tension and emotional strain.
what is a whistle-blower ?
someone who reports wrongdoing to higher authorities.
often involving people in business or government reporting misconduct to mangers or the media.
what was the aim of Boccharios study?
to investigate if disobedient participants and whistle blowers have different personality characteristics to those who obey.
what is the sample of Boccharios study?
149 undergraduate students
from the VU university in Amsterdam
recruited by flyers
what is a pilot study ?
a study done before the main study
why was a pilot study done before Banduras main study ?
to ensure that the study was credible for investigating sensory deprivation.
what stages was the procedure of boccharios study spilt into?
preliminary stage
the task
what happened in the preliminary stage of Boccharios study?
the participants met a researcher in the lab of the university. the researcher was:
-formally dressed
-stern demeanour
the researcher asked them to write down the names of 5 fellow students and then gave them a fake cover story of the research he was conducting.
participants were debriefed and asked not to discuss this research with friends and colleges
what happened in the task stage of Boccharios study?
participants are taken into a new room, are sat in front of a computer and asked to write a statement for their fellow student’s recommending the research.
there was also a research committee form they ere given to tick if they wanted to blow the whistle on the study.
the researcher then left the room for 7 minutes. this gave the participants an opportunity to write the statement or not, and report the research to the committee.
what were the predicted results of Boccharios study?
some different university students precited that the majority of the students would whistleblow (65%)
what were the actual results of Boccharios study?
77% were obedient
how did Bocchairo measure difference in personality amongst the participants?
participants completed a personality questionaire called a HEXACO PI-R
what did the results tell us from Boccharios study?
there are no personality differences between those that do and don’t whistle-blow/those who obey or disobey
what happened after the procedure? Bocchiaro’s study
Participants were told the study wasn’t real and were probed for suspiciousness about the nature of the study.
Debriefed by the researcher, to ensure they didn’t feel uncomfortable about their performance and that they had been deceived
“Please do not discuss this research with friends and colleagues”
Participants fill out a second consent form to allow their data to be used
Given an email address to ask questions about the study, or to complain
what were some conclusions from Boccharios study?
(blowing the whistle) is challenging for people, even when it appears to be the easiest path to follow
Most people will obey when asked to do an unethical thing by an authority figure
People’s personality and individual characteristics don’t seem to influence how obedient they are
what was the background of Piliavins study?
Following the murder of Kitty Genovese, social psychologists began to investigate why people fail to help someone in need.
what was the aim of Piliavins study?
This study was designed to investigate how a group of people would react if they saw a person who collapsed on a train.
Would an ill person get more help than a drunk person? (the type of victim)
Would people help others of the same race before helping those of different races?
If a model started helping the victim, would that encourage others to also help?
Would the number of bystanders who saw the victim influence how much help was given?
what is the bystander effect?
where people fail to act and help someone in need when others are present.
what is diffusion of responsibility?
where there is a victim and lots of bystanders are present, each individual takes less responsibility so no one helps (thinking someone else will)
what was the sample of Piliavins study?
Participants were passengers who were on board the 8th Avenue subway express train in New York.
They did not know they were taking part in a study, gave no consent and were not debriefed.
Approximately 4,450 participants took part in the study over three months.
55% of them were white and 45% were black.
what was the procedure of Piliavins study?
The study took place daily on weekdays from 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. over three months.
The experiment always took place between the same two stops on the train as there was a 7.5 minute period with no interruptions.
Using teams of university students, a situation was created on the train to see how passengers would react to it.
70 seconds into the journey, one of the university students (male) would stagger forwards and collapse on the train.
The student would always collapse in the same spot – designated the ‘critical area’. The other side of the carriage was called the ‘adjacent area’.
Participants’ reactions were then observed covertly by two observers.
On some trials the victim would appear to be ILL and hold a walking cane.
On other trials the victim would appear DRUNK and smell of alcohol.
He would always be dressed the same way (in a military style jacket called an Eisenhower jacket)
The RACE of the victim would also vary. Sometimes he was white, and other times black.
In some groups, a MODEL (one of the students, who was acting) would help the VICTIM.
The number of passengers on the train would also vary.
What data was recorded in Piliavins study?
A number of different factors were observed:
The race, gender and location of passengers on the train.
The race, gender and location of passengers who helped the victim.
How long it took passengers to help the victim.
What passengers said to each other when they noticed the victim.
At the end of the three months, the teams had conducted 103 trials on the train. Most of these were ill trials rather than drunk though (they didn’t like doing the drunk trials).
what were the quantative findings of Piliavins study?
Spontaneous help given on 62/65 cane (ill) trials compared to only 19/38 drunk trials.
Help was offered more quickly to the cane victim (a median of 5 seconds compared to 109 seconds delay for the drunk victim).
90% of the first helpers were males.
what were the qualitative findings of Piliavins study?
“It’s for men to help him”
“I wish I could help- I’m not strong enough”
what were the conclusions from piliavins study?
The state of the victim affects how likely people are to help
Males are more likely to help than females
There was no diffusion of responsibility (help came quicker and in greater numbers when more people were present on the carriage), which contradicts the previous research into bystander apathy.
what was the background of Levines study?
previous research has found that people in urban areas tend to be less likely to help, than those in rural areas.
what was the aim of Levines study ?
- to see if cultures vary in levels of help offered ti people in need
-to see if a tendency to help is stable across different helping situations
- to identify characteristics of cultures, where strangers are more or less likely to be helped
what was the procedure of Levines study?
. Data was collected in 23 different cities around the world (north america, south america, Africa, europe, asia) (New York, Amsterdam, Rio De Janeiro)
. in most of the cities, it was one student - usually returning home for summer vacation - who collected the data. All the experimenters were Male, college age, and dressed neatly and casually
either one of the participants would would do one of the following helping scenarios?
(drop a pen whilst walking)
(drop a pile of magazines whilst walking with a heavy limp, and wearing a large and clearly visible leg brace)
(act like a blind person needing help to cross the road)
- these conditions were all done in the city center on a clear day, during business hours (9-5)
- these scenarios were not done in front of children or elderly people with disabilities
what were the results of Levines study ?
1). there was a significant variation between cultures and helping behaviour (93% helped in Rio De Janeiro, only 40% helped in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia)
2). overall, a cities helping rate was relatively stable across the 3 measures
what were the 4 predicted community factors/variables the experimenters believed would affect helping behaviour in the each of these different cultures ?
: population size of the city
: average income and its purchasing power
: how collectivist or individualistic a country was
: pace of life
which 4 of the factors that the experimenters predicted would have an impact on the helping behaviour of people actually did have an influence ?
average income and its purchasing power
pace of life
overall what were the conclusions made from Levines study?
+ levels of help offered does vary across different cultures
+ this is related to the wealth of different cultures
+ sympatia cultures
what is the main principle of the developmental area ?
behaviour develops over time throughout a persons life.
upbringing and childhood experiences affect adult behaviours.
what are some concepts of the developmental area ?
external influences on children’s behaviour
moral development
stages of development
social learning theory
operant conditioning
how does banduras study link to the developmental area ?
Bandura investigated how children might learn behaviour.
the study shows that a childs external environment can have a large influence on their later behaviour.
children will learn behaviour simply through observing others (adults, role models), and will imitate beaviour they see. this can be both positive or negative behaviours.
how does Kohlberg’s study link to the developmental area ?
Kohlbergs study suggests that children’s moral reasoning changes as they get older and develop in fixed stages. kohlberg suggested these stages follow an invariant development developmental sequence which is not affected by cultural or social differences.
how does Chaney’s study link to the developmental area ?
shows that children can learn behaviour through positive and negative reinforcement (e.g. Funhaler). more positive attentions towards the funhaler and it was used more.
how does Lee’s study link to the developmental area ?
suggests that cultural differences DO impact moral reasoning and judgments about lying and truth telling as Chinese & Canadian children showed differences in how they judged lying and truth telling in pro-social situations (Chinese children believed it was acceptable to lie about doing a good deed as it shows modesty).
what are the strengths of the Developmental Area ?
+ often uses longitudinal research so we can see how behaviour develops
+ helps investigate whether behaviour is influenced by nature or nurture
what are the weaknesses of the Developmental Area ?
- often we use children which can break ethical guidelines
- research can be socially sensitive (parents blamed in Banduras study)
Outline two features of the Milgram study of obedience which made it seem real to the participants ?
One feature which made the study seem realistic was the use of the shock generator, which appeared realistic as it looked genuine with its switches, wires, and sounds.
Also, the participants were given a sample shock of 45 volts which made them believe the shock generator was administering real shocks – again, making it seem real to life.
Milgram, in his study of obedience, offered several suggestions for why participants (the teachers) obeyed. Describe two of these suggestions.
The experiment was carried out at a prestigious university (Yale) so the participants believed the research had a worthy purpose and that it was important that they continue.
The participants felt obliged to continue and therefore give the shocks as they had volunteered and been paid $4.50 to take part.
From Milgram’s study of obedience, explain why many of the participants displayed signs of severe stress and emotional strain.
The participants were in a position in which they had to respond to the competing demands of two people: the experimenter and the learner. They had to decide whether to follow the demands of the experimenter, or consider the harm being caused to the learner and stop giving shocks. The participant is unable to satisfy both the experimenter and the learner, and this leaves them stressed and under emotional strain.
From Milgrams study, suggest one problem with measuring obedience through the number of participants who administered shocks to the maximum of 450V.
One problem with measuring obedience in this way is that the task of giving electric shocks as a punishment lacks ecological validity. We cannot assume that the level of obedience shown here would reflect the level of obedience found in a real-life situation.
what are 2 qualitative findings from Milgrams study ?
All 40 of the participants (100%) were prepared to give electric shocks to the learner up to the 300-volt level.
Of the 40 participants, 26 of them (i.e. 65%) were prepared to give electric shocks to the learner up to the maximum level of 450 volts.
how much were the participants in Milgrams study paid to take part ?
$4.50
What was the mean percentage prediction by a group of psychology students as to how many participants would shock all the way to 450 volts?
1.2%
What does Milgram NOT tell us about the most extreme example of this?
Milgram called an ambulance to help the participant
what is the background to Morays study ?
Moray believed that we all had an international barrier allowing us to block out other conversations we are not listening to.
- Moray’s study wanted to provide evidence for Cherry’s previous study using a dichostic listening task, where he found that people tended to fail to notice the details of the unattended messages.
what is a dichostic listening task ?
is where 2 messages are played simultaneously, one in each ear and asks participants to repeat aloud one of the messages.
what is the cocktail party effect ?
where when our name is called, our attention is likely to switch, even if we were not paying attention to them beforehand.
what is the AIM of Moray’s study ?
To replicate Cherry’s findings and provide evidence for the cocktail party effect in a more rigorous and scientific way.
what did Moray’s sample consist of ?
Male and Female Oxford University Undergraduate Students
in the procedure of Morays study how many experiments were there ?
3
what were the 3 experiments in moray study ?
dichostic listening tasks
what is a dichostic listening task ?
where there are two different messages playing in either ear
what happened in Morays 1st experiment study ?
participants had to repeat a piece of prose that they could hear in one ear. (attended message)
in the other ear another passage was played reading a list of simple words. (rejected message)
at the end of the experiment participants completed a recognition task.
describe the recognition task in Morays study ?
the participants were showed a list of 21 words, that they didn’t know ere split into 3 categories
- from shadowed passage
- from rejected passage
- from neither
participants they had to choose the words they recognised
what did they conclude from the 1st experiment in Morays study ?
participants were much more bale to recognise words from the shadowed passage
what happened in Morays 2nd experiment ?
they added names in the passage to see if personal messages grabbed participants attention
what did they conclude from the 2nd experiment in Morays study ?
participants were far more likely to hear the instructions if they were personal (included the participants name)
what happened in Morays 3rd experiment ?
in this experiment the rejected passage or shadowed passage was spoken number digits
what did they conclude from the 3rd experiment in Morays study ?
there was no significant difference in the number digits recalled by the 2 different groups (rejected/ shadowed passage)
what did they conclude overall from Morays study ?
1). almost none of the verbal content from the rejected passage penetrated the participants intentional barrier
2). a short list of simple words wasn’t memorised, even when it was repeated several times
what is the background to Banduras study ?
previous research suggested that children will imitate behaviours of role models, but only when the adults are present
what is the aim of Banduras study ?
to investigate whether children would imitate a models aggression when the model was no longer present and if they would show the behaviours in a different way
also Bandura wanted to investigate if gender of the model or the child would impact on children’s aggression
what did Banduras sample consist of ?
72 children from Stanford University Nursery
3-5 yrs old
36 boys 36 girls
what was the participant design in Bandura’s study ?
Matched participant design
what is a matched participant design ?
a matched participant design is one where the participants are matched based on similar characteristics
what was done before the procedure in Banduras study ?
Pre-Testing
what did the Pre-Testing consist of ?
tested the children on specific characteristics (physical aggression, verbal aggression) before putting them into 3 different groups
what was the inter-rater reliability of the pre-testing in Banduras study ?
0.89
how many stages where there in Banduras study ?
3
what happened in the 1st stage of Banduras study ?
children were taken individually into a room in the nursery and started playing with toys
- some children saw an aggressively acting adult
- some children saw a non-aggressive adult playing
- some children did not see an adult role model
what happened in the 2nd stage of Banduras study ?
after 10 mins the children were taken into a 2nd room, with lots of colorful fun toys to play with
2 minutes later the researcher came back in to tell the children that these toys were not for them to play with
this was an attempt to anger the children
what happened in the 3rd stage of Banduras study ?
the children were then taken back into a room with lots of toys to play with and a smaller version of the previous bobo doll from stage 1
the toys included normal toys such as crayons and animals, as well as aggressive toys such as guns and a hammer
they observed for 20 mins, too see if they imitated the behaviour shown by the adults in stage 1
what was a quantitative finding of banduras study ?
children who saw an aggressive model were more likely to show aggression (boys watching an aggressive model gave 25.8 aggressive acts vs only 1.5 when watching a male non-aggressive model)
what was a qualitative finding of banduras study ?
“that aint no way for a lady to behave.”
what did they conclude from Banduras study ?
- children can learn to imitate behaviours of role models
- children are more likely to imitate a role model of the same sex
what is operant conditioning ?
involves learning through the consequences of your actions
what is the background to Chaney’s study ?
Asthma is a chronic condition that effects about 1 in 4 people in Australia
even though, there are treatments for asthma, the problem is some people, i particular children, do not use their inhalers correctly which can lead to risks to their health
what is the aim to Chaney’s study ?
To investigate whether operant conditioning (rewards), could be used to encourage children to adhere to using their asthma medication
what is the sample of Chaney’s ?
- 32 children
- from Australia
- Between 1.5 - 6 yrs old
- 75% over 3 yrs old
what were the 2 inhalers used before Chaney’s study ?
. the aerochamber inhaler
. the breath-a-tech inhaler
what was the new inhaler used by Chaney called ?
The Funhaler
how might the Funhaler provide positive reinforcement ?
the toy ball spins more and the whistle blows louder when the inhaler is used correctly by the child
how might the Funhaler provide negative reinforcement ?
children and parents will know when it is being used correctly and so it reduces anxiety and stress
what happened in the 1st stage of Chaney’s study ?
parents filled out an initial questionnaire about the standard inhaler, measuring:
. how effectively it was used
. problems with it
. children’s attitude towards it
what happened in the 2nd stage of Chaney’s study ?
- parents were given the funhaler to use with their child for 2 weeks
- the parents were then randomly contacted by telephone and asked if they had used the Funhaler the previous day
what happened in the 3rd stage of Chaney’s study ?
a second questionnaire was given to the parents to measure:
. the effectiveness of the Funhaler
. problems with the Funhaler
. children’s attitude towards using the Funhaler
. parents attitudes towards the Funhaler (acceptance etc)
what were the results of Chaneys study ?
> 73% of the parents were successfully able to medicate their child when using the Funhaler, compared to 10% when using the ordinary inhaler
> only 3% of the children screamed when the Funhaler was brought close to them, compared to 48% when the ordinary inhaler was given to them
what was the conclusion made from Chaney’s study ?
- children were more likely to use their Funhaler correctly compared to ordinary inhalers
(this suggests operant conditioning is an effective way of treating children with Asthma)
what is the background to Kholbergs study ?
Kholberg looked at other psychologists had thought about moral development before he created his own research.
what is the Behaviorist Perspective ?
people learn morals through their parents (role models, imitation, positive and negative reinforcement)
what is the Psychodynamic Perspective ?
your morals are a result of your superego (your conscious)
what was the aim of Kholbergs study ?
To investigate how children move throughout different stages of moral development, as they get older and to see if there are any cultural differences in how this happens.
what was the sample of of Kholbergs study ?
. 75 american boys
. study went on for 12 years
. started when they were 11-16 yrs old
. finished when they were 22-28 yrs old
what was the procedure of kholbergs study ?
1). every boy was presented with a moral dilemma every 3 years for 12 years
2). using answers they gave, kholberg ranked them in 6 categories (1 least morally developed, 6 most morally developed)
he did this in 6 different countries (Malaysia, UK etc)
this formed Kholbergs moral stages of development
what is kholbergs main theory about moral development ?
as we grow up our moral thinking develops in stages, as it develops our moral development grows
what are the 3 main levels of kholbergs stages of moral development ?
Pre-Conventional Level
Conventional Level
Post-Conventional Level
describe the Pre-conventional level ? (kholberg)
people (usually children) are well behaved only because of the physical consequences
describe the conventional level ? (kholberg)
people conform to the social norms and expectations of society, because rules must be followed
describe the Post-conventional level ? (kholberg)
people set their own personal moral principles which may differ from those of their social group
what are the 6 different stages inside the 3 levels of kholbergs stages of moral development ?
1). obedience & punishment
2). self-interest
3). interpersonal accord & social conformity
4). authority and maintaining social conduct
5). social contract
(Tom gets beaten up in school for beating up a year 1 girl)
6). universal ethical principles
(justice)
what are the conclusions of kholbergs study ?
- kholberg discovered that peoples moral development follows an invariant developmental sequence
(meaning that everyone regardless of culture, social background, religion, move through the same 6 stages of moral development in the same order, a stage is never skipped)
what type of study is kholbergs study ?
longitudinal study
what is a longitudinal study ?
You follow the same set of children as they get older and test them at different ages
what is a snapshot study ?
investigating different children in each age group and compare their results on a test
what are the strengths of a longitudinal study ?
+ participant variables are controlled (same participants)
+ a large amount of data can be collected
+ researchers can record the precise moments in which children change/develop
what are the weaknesses of a longitudinal study ?
- participants may drop out of the study
- It will take a long time before all the results are in, which may limit the replicability of the study and can make it expensive
- Demand characteristics
- It is likely to be done with a relatively small sample, meaning results can be distorted by anomalous (atypical) individuals within the cohort being studies
what are the strengths of a cross-sectional study ?
+ Results are obtained more quickly than longitudinal research
+ It is likely that there will be less attrition of the sample
+ It is easier to do with a large sample of participants, meaning the researcher can establish if they have got reliable results (a consistent effect
what are the weaknesses of a cross-sectional study ?
- There will be participant variables
- You only get a snapshot of development and do not see changes in an individual over a long period of time
what was the aim of lee’s study ?
To investigate whether the culture a child grows up in (individualistic or collectivist) affects their views about truth-telling and lying.
(they also wanted to investigate whether this changed as the children got older)
what is an individualistic culture ?
societies that emphasis the individual, their rights, attitudes, and needs.
what is an collectivist culture ?
societies that emphasise the group, its decisions and needs and the duties of the individual to that group
what were the 2 countries Lee’s sample was made up of ?
Chinese children
Canadian children
in china what are children educated on from a very young age ?
Honesty
Modesty
what was the sample of Lee’s study ?
120 children (aged 7,9,11 yrs old) CHINA
108 children (aged 7,9,11 yrs old) CANADA
what was the method of Lee’s study ?
1). children were all tested individually
2). each child was read 4 different stories
3). the stories were designed to represent & reflect situations that would be familiar to them
4). the children were randomly split into 2 groups
1/2 children were read social stories (individual interacting with others)
1/2 children were read physical stories (individual interacting with objects)
what is Pro-Social Truth ?
doing something good and telling the truth about it
what is Pro-Social Lie ?
doing something good and not telling the truth about it
what is Anti-Social Truth ?
doing something bad and telling the truth about it
what is Anti-Social Lie ?
doing something bad and not telling the truth about it
how did the children answer the questions in Lee’s study ?
by using a rating scale
what were the results of the Pro-Social Truth stories ?
. children from China came to view this less positively as they got older
what were the results of the Pro-Social Lie stories ?
. children from China came to view this more positively as they got older
what were the results of the Anti-Social stories ?
- culture had no influence
(both cultures rating telling truth about doing something bad, positively)
what were some qualitative findings of Lee’s study ?
Chinese children believed that:
“one should not leave ones name after doing a good dead.”
what did Lee conclude from his study ?
Lee concluded that there are differences in moral development between different cultures, and it is because of social and cultural rules.
define inattentional blindness ?
the failure to see an event or object that is in your field of vision because you are so focused on other elements pf what you can see
what is the background to Simon and Chabris study ?
Neisser did a study in the previous years of Simon and chabris study, which looked at a similar scenario whereby there were 2 teams playing a game involving a basketball, then randomly a lady with an umbrella walked through the middle of the game. Many of the participant’s and viewers did not recognise/see the lady.
what was the Aims of Simon and Chabris study ?
1)> To investigate if inattentional blindness would be more likely if the unexpected event was similar to the attended event.
2)> To investigate if particularly unusual events would be more likely to be seen.
3)> To investigate whether participant’s would have trouble noticing the unexpected event when the task was more difficult.
4)> To investigate the effect of the ‘transparent’ video and to compare if the same level of blindness would occur in a more realistic ‘opaque’ video.
what was the sample of simon and chabris study ?
228 observers
undergraduate students
what team were the participant’s informed to watch and do ?
a video clip of two teams (Black and White) passing a ball around, and to count the number of passes of the ball.
how was the task either made ‘hard’ or ‘easy’ for the participant’s ?
Difficult:
(the participant kept sperate mental notes of the number of ariel passes ad the number of bounce passes that their team made)
Simple:
(the participant kept a mental note of all the passes made by their team)
what 3 independent variables were manipulated in Simon and Chabris study ?
- the type of video (transparent or opaque)
- the type of event (umbrella woman or gorilla)
- the difficulty of the focused task (easy or hard)
Once the participants had watched the type of video they were given what were they instructed to do ? Simon and Chabris
record the no. of passes on paper
Then, answer a number of questions
what were the 3 questions that the participant’s in Simon and Chabris study were asked after watching the clip ?
1). While you were doing the counting, did you notice anything unusual ?
2). Did you notice anything other than the 6 players ?
3). Did you see a gorilla or a woman carrying an umbrella, walk across the screen ?
what were the results from Simon and Chabris study ?
. The overall level of inattentional blindness was 46%
. the type of video had an effect on the level of inattentional blindness
. the type of difficulty of the task had an effect on the level of inattentional blindness
what did Simon and Chabris conclude from their study ?
that inattentional blindness occurs in dynamic events that are sustained, lasting more than 5 seconds.
what was the Background to Loftus and Palmers study ?
Bartlett (a psychologist) stated that our memory is not like a film where the event is played back exactly as it happens.
Instead, he believed that we reconstruct the event, which is affected by our past-experiences and pre-existing beliefs about what typically might happen.
(reconstructive memory)
Our memories can get distorted from what we already know.
what is the Schema theory ? Loftus and Palmer
mental representations of what actually happens in different situations, based on passed experiences.
they allow us to make sense of the world.
what was the aim of Loftus and Palmers study ?
To investigate the effect of language (in particular leading questions) on memory.
what happened in experiment 1 of Loftus and Palmers study ?
Participants watched video clips which included staged car crashes.
Following the clip, they were given a questionnaire which included several smokescreen questions to disguise the aim, and the critical question.
what was the main question that participants in Loftus and Palmers study were given ?
About how fast were the cars going when they ___________ each other?
(smashed, bumped, collided, hit, or contacted)
what was the IV and DV in Loftus and Palmers study ?
IV: verb used in the critical question (smashed, bumped, collided, hit, or contacted)
DV: the estmated speed (mph)
what did Loftus and Palmer find from experiment 1 ?
that the verb did change the speed estimate
what was the two explanations that they suggested was the reason why the verb changed the speed estimate, in Loftus and Palmers study ?
1). [response bias]
Participants were not sure whether to say 30 or 40mph but the verb smashed biased them towards giving a higher estimate.
2). [the verb affected their memory]
The verb used caused a change in the participants’ memory for the event so “smashed” led them to remember the event as being more serious than it was.
why was a 2nd experiment done in Loftus and Palmers study ?
was to see which of the explanations were correct
what happened in experiment 2 of Loftus and Palmers study ?
The exact same as in experiment 1 however:
- A new set of participants watched one video clip containing a multiple car crash.
- One group heard the word smashed, another heard the word hit, and a third group acted as a control and were not asked about the speed.
- they were asked a week later whether they had seen any broken glass (there wasn’t any)
what was the estimated mean speed (mph) when the verb ‘smashed as used in experiment 1compared to when the verb was ‘contacted’ ?
smashed- 40.8 mph
contacted- 31.8 mph
what were the results of the 2nd experiment in Loftus and Palmers study ?
participant’s in the ‘smashed’ condition were more likely to give a ‘yes’ response to the question about broken glass
what did Loftus and Palmer conclude from their study ?
questions asked subsequent to an event can cause a reconstruction in ones memory of that event.
the verb used in a question can affect the speed a witness estimates a vehicle to have been travelling at and also whether they recall any broken glass.
what is context dependent memory ?
is where memory is improved if the environment that the learning takes place in is the same as the environment where memory is recalled.
what is recall memory ?
is when you have to remember information with no prompts to remind you.
what is recognition memory ?
recognising something that triggers your memory.
what did Grant predict ?
predicted that context dependent memory will benefit recall but not recognition tasks
what is the background to Grant’s study ?
a previous study was done investigating context-dependent where some deep sea divers learned words underwater and some learned them on land.
When the divers were tested on the words they had learnt, when the environment matched they could better recall the words.
what is the Aim of Grants study ?
to investigate context-dependent memory effects on both recall and recognition for meaningful information (as opposed for just a list of words)
what was the sample of Grants study ?
(8 psychology students for Iowa State University acted as experimenters in the study.)
They recruited 5 acquaintances as participants in this study.
However, one particpants results were not included in the final analysis leaving a final sample of (39 participants).
(Aged 17-56 years old)
(17 females 23 males)
what is the procedure of Grants study ?
1). participants were asked to read once through a 2 page academic article on the subject of psychoimmunology while wearing a pair of headphones.
2). 1/2 of the participants did it while listening to background noise taken from a ui cafeteria.
3). 1/2 the participants did it in silence
4). they then had a 2 min break
5). The participant’s then completed 10 recall questions and 16 multiple choice questions on what they had read.
they did this again with headphone but this time 1/2 of each study group did it listening to background noise and the other 1/2 in silence.
what were the results of Grants study ?
mean number of correct answers were higher when they completed the recall tests in the same conditions that they completed the reading task in.
what did they conclude from Grants study ?
. the results supported the idea that context-dependent memory is found for meaningful information rather than just lists
. both recall and recognition of information is better with context matches
what is the background to Sperrys study ?
. epilepsy is a neurological condition that affects about 600,000 people in the UK, causing seizures
. seizures can be debilitating, and one treatment for severe epilepsy involves surgery to cut the nerve fibres connecting the 2 hemispheres of the brain.
. Sperry has previously investigated this surgery with cats and monkeys , where he found that you could teach one hemisphere of the brain a task whilst the other was unaware of the information learned, suggesting the brain is made up of 2 separate modules.
what is lateralisation of function ?
where each hemisphere has a different function
(the left specializing in language processing)
what is contralateral control ?
each hemisphere of the brain controls the operate side of the body and visual field.
what is the corpus collosum ?
a bundle of nerves that allow communication between the 2 brain hemispheres.
what is a commissurtomy ?
surgery carried out on the brain, to cut out the corpus collosum
what were the 2 main aims of Sperry’s study ?
- sperry aimed to investigate the function/abilities of each hemisphere of the brain.
- sperry also wanted to investigate the effects of disconnecting the 2 hemispheres of the brain
what did the sample of sperry’s study consist of ?
11 participants in total, who had had a comissurtomy to treat their epilepsy
- 2 had been operated on years before
- 9 had only recently been operated on
there was also a control group fro comparison
what did the procedure consist of in Sperry’s study ?
2 Tasks
(visual task)
(tactile task)
what happened in the visual task of Sperry’s procedure ?
. it involved investigating what the patients could do when information was flashed on a screen in front of them to one visual field.
1). participants sat down in front of the tachistoscpope with one eye covered
2). they were asked to stare at the fixation point on the screen in front of them and images were flashed up on the screen for 1/10th second.
3). participants were asked to either:
- name the object
- draw the object
- point to the object from a collection of photos
what happened in the tactile task of Sperry’s procedure ?
. involved investigating what patients could do when touching an object with one hand
1). participants sat down with their hands shielded from view
2). they were asked to pick up objects with one hand from behind the screen
3). they were then asked to either:
- name the object
- point to it from a collection of photos
- or pick up the object again
what did Sperry find from this study ?
. the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body and the right visual field, vice versa
. participants could pick up any of the same objects again if they used the same hand as before
what did Sperry conclude from his study ?
- with the corpus callosum cut, one side of the brain doesn’t know what the other side of the brain is doing
- left hemisphere also controls speech, writing, and language
what was the background to Casey’s study ?
The Marshmallow Test:
- Mischel tested 4 year old children by putting a marshmallow in front of them, the child was told by the researcher that once they had left the room the children could either eat the marshmallow or wait another 15 mins, until the researcher returned to redeem another marshmallow.
what were the 2 aims of Casey’s study ?
1). to see if those who did the marshmallow test at 4 and who struggled to delay gratification at that age, still struggled with resisting temptation in adulthood.
2). to examine activity in areas of the brain thought to be associated with the ability to resist temptation.
what was the sample of Casey’s study ?
562 four-year-olds took part in the initial marshmallow test
they followed up these children who were now in their 20s using a self-report measure
they followed up these people again in their 30s using a self-report measure
finally, they followed up the participants in their 40s now and were asked to take part in the study
. only those who were consistently high delayers or low delayers were contacted
in Casey’s study what were low delayers ?
participants who consistently gave into temptation
in Sperry’s study what were high delayers ?
participants who consistently resisted temptation and could delay gratification for longer period of time
what did the experiment 1 consist of in Caseys study ?
2 tasks
(cool task)
(hot task)
what happened in the cool task in Caseys study ?
participants completed an impulse control task called the Go/No-Go task
. they would have to press a button when they saw one stimulus (e.g. a female face) and not press the button when they saw the other stimulus (e.g. male face)
what happened in the hot task in Casey’s study ?
in this task, faces with happy expressions acted as ‘hot’ stimuli, so would be alluring or tempting to adults in the same way marshmallows were to 4-year olds.
this time the 2 stimuli were happy or fearful faces.
. participants had to press a button when they saw one of the emotions (happy/fearful)
what happened in the main procedure of Casey’s study ?
1). Participants were tested individually and completed the test on a laptop computer that was sent to their home.
2). Participants took part in a impulse control task – also known as a “Go/No-go” task.
3). Participants are told on screen that they will be shown a series of male and female faces.
4). Each face appeared on screen for 500ms.
5). Participants are instructed to push a button every time a certain type of face appears e.g. a male face (this is a “go” face) and NOT to push a button if the female face appears (a “no go” face).
6). Participants are told to complete the task as quickly and accurately as possible. Their reaction times and accuracy were recorded afterwards.
7). Every time the participants see a new face is called “a trial”.
8). Every participant did 4 sets of 160 trials.
9). 2 of the sets were “cool” versions of the task
The other 2 sets were “hot” versions of the task
what were the results of the Cool Task ?
there was no difference between high delayers and low delayers
what were the results of the hot Task ?
the low delayers made more errors than the high delayers
what were the conclusions from experiment 1 of Casey’s study ?
Low delayers (people who struggled to resist temptation as 4-year olds) showed more difficulty suppressing responses to happy faces in their forties.
why did Casey carry out a 2nd experiment ?
to find an answer to his 2nd aim
(to investigate the ability to resist temptation is due to the activity of the brain, if so which regions of the brain might be implicated in the ability to delay gratification)
what is the part of the brain known as a “cool system” (involved in the ability to control your thoughts and resist temptation) ?
The prefrontal cortex
what is the part of the brain known as the “hot system” (active when the brain wants a tempting stimulus, and a more emotional and lack control) ?
The limbic system
what did Casey do in his 2nd experiment ?
monitored brain activity whilst completing a task
what did Casey find from the FMRI scan (brain scan) ?
- the Low Delayers showed lower activity in the frontal gyrus, but more activity in ventral straitum
- the High Delayers showed higher activity in the frontal gyrus, but less activity in the ventral staritum
what did Casey conclude from Experiment 2 ?
. being able to delay gratification is a useful ability that can help with long term decision making and goals
. the results showed us a biological reason why some people have better self-control than others
what did Casey conclude overall from both experiments ?
- resisting temptation/ or not is a relatively stable individual characteristic - (people who struggled with self-control aged 4, generally still struggle with self-control)
- the study suggests that the ability to delay gratification is made more difficult by happy faces
what are the principles of the cognitive area ?
. our behaviour is driven by internal mental processes (such as attention, memory)
. the mind processes like a computer, with inputs from senses, processing information, and retrieval
what are the main concepts of the cognitive area ?
- context-dependent memory
- reconstructive memory
- schema theory
- inattentional blindness
- the cocktail part effect
how does Morays study link to the cognitive are ?
- investigated auditory attention
- showed we are unable to process information we are n0t attending unless its meaningful to us
- participants failed to notice information in the rejected passage unless it was direct to them
how does Loftus and Palmer’s study link to the cognitive are ?
-investigated an internal mental process (memory)
- showed that this can be distorted by info gained after an event
- participants gave higher speed estimates and reported less broken glass seen after the crash when the verb “smashed” was used in comparison to the word “contacted”.
how does Simon and Chabris study link to the cognitive are ?
- provides evidence for inattentional blindess
- participants often failed to notice the person on the gorilla outfit
-this is even more likely to be missed if the task is more difficult
how does Grant study link to the cognitive are ?
- investigated memory
- showed this is influenced by the environment in which information is learned and retrieved in
- when the environment we learn information in is the same as the environment we recall it in, we will have better recall, due to context-dependent memory
what are the strengths of the cognitive area ?
+ Research has practical applications (e.g. for students wanting to remember material)
+ Research is often scientific (highly controlled and replicable)
+ Findings are unlikely to be ethnocentric (i.e. the mind can be expected to work in the same ways in all cultures)
what are the weaknesses of the cognitive area ?
- Research often lacks ecological validity
- Cognitive processes can’t be studied directly, and the reliance on self-report can raise problems with demand characteristics or socially desirable answers
what are the applications of the cognitive area ?
. Do revision sessions for students in the exam hall
. In an emergency, use someone’s NAME (e.g. smoke alarms)
Ban mobile phones for people who are driving
what is the key theme in Blakemoore and cooper study ?
Brain Plasticity
what is brain plasticity ?
the idea that your brain adapts and changes according to what your doing your life and the demands placed on it.
what is the background o Blakemoore and Coopers study ?
investigated the visual cortex of the brain in kittens.
. kittens wore special goggles so they could see only horizontal and vertical stripes in the other eye
. when the goggles were removed, the kittens showed visual defects and that their visual neurons had adapted to the environment they had seen in each eye.
what were the aims of Blakemoore and Coopers study ?
1). investigate the effects of being raised in restricted visual environments on kittens
2). investigate the effects of this environment on behaviour
3). investigate the neurophysiological effects on the kittens neurons and visual cortex
(to measure brain plasticity)
why did Blakemoore and cooper use kittens ?
. like humans, cats eyes are binocular and see in colour.
both species have good vision
. cats brains have a visual cortex which is located in similar place to that in the humans
. it would be ethical to do the experiment on human infants
define the visual cortex ?
a part of our brains which receives and processes visual information from the retinas of the eye
what is a startle response ?
the automatic reaction to sudden or threatening stimuli
(e.g. flinching when an object is hrusted towards your face)
what is visual placing ?
the tendency of kittens to reach out and place their paws in front of them when being carried towards and surface (ready to touch down on the surface)
what is the procedure of Blakemoore and Coopers study ?
1). newborn kittens were raised in a completely dark for 2 weeks.
2). after 2 weeks the kittens were placed inside a 2m high x 46cm diameter cylinder for 6 hours a day.
(then returned to the dark room)
3). the kittens were only able to either horizontal or vertical lines until they reached 5 months old.
4). After 5 months (this was thought to be the critical period for brain development) they were put in a well lit room with furniture (including chairs and tables) and their behaviour was observed over several weeks.
describe the ittens environment in blakmoore and coopers study when they were put in the cylinder container ?
. lid placed on top of the cylinder and illuminated above
. wore a collar around their neck to restrict vision
. stood on clear glass platform so they could only see stripes above and below them
. cylinder had either vertical or horizontal lines
what were the controls in blakemoore and coopers study ?
. wore a collar so they could not see their body
. kept in a completely dark room when not in cylinder for 1st 2 weeks
. same amount of time each day (5hours) in the cylinder
. both tested after 5 months in the same environment
what were the initial results of blakemoore and coopers study ?
. no visual placing when carried towards a table
. no startle reflex was shown when objects were thrusted towards them
. each individual neuron in the visual cortex will only respond to objects at specific orientations (rod held horizontally could see but not held vertically, vice versa)
what were some other visual defects that the cats in blakemoore and cooper had ?
. they would navigate their way around using touch
. would often bump into objects
. they were frightened when they reached the edge of the surface they were standing on
did the kittens have any permanent defects ?
. they always followed moving objects with very clumsy, jerky head movements
. they often tried to touch moving objects that were at the other side of he room, far from their reach
. continued to bump into objects when scurrying around the room
what did blakemoore and cooper conclude from their study ?
- the visual environment had chnaged the kittens brain(the neurons of their brains had rewired themselves based on the environment they were exposed to (so the horizontally raised cat could no longer see vertical lines and vice versa).
what might be advantages of using animals in research ?
. easier to control than humans
. less likely to change their behaviour ad show demand characteristics
. can be used if it would be unethical to carry the study out using humans
what is Brain Plasticity ?
the ability of the brain to adapt to changes in demand from our environment
what is the Background to Maguires study ?
. The Hippocampus is an important part of the brain, which is involved in memory and navigation
. Case studies have shown that damage to their Hippocampus revealed difficulties in memory and navigation
what is the Aim of Maguires study ?
- To investigate the differences in the Hippocampus of London Taxi Drivers compared to controls
- To investigate functions of the Hippocampus in Spatial Memory
what did Maguires control group consist of ?
. 50 right handed healthy males aged 32-62 years old, selected from the MRI data base
what did Maguires Sample consist of ?
. 16 male London Taxi Drivers
. all right-handed
. all medically healthy
. aged between 32-62 years old
. licensed for at least 18 months
. all passed ‘The Knowledge’ (taxi routes and locations exam)
what was the method of Maguires study ?
- they compared the 16 taxi drivers brain scans to 16 scans from the control group, who was matched for age
- data was collected through the 2 techniques used to analyse MRI scans
what are the 2 techniques to analyse MRI scans ?
Voxel-based morphometry
Pixel Counting
what is Voxel-based morphometry ?
3D measure of the volume of Grey matter in the brain
what is Pixel counting ?
2D measure of the volume of white & grey matter in the brain using pixels
what were the results from Maguires study ?
- significantly increased volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus taxi drivers compared to the control group
- however, they showed lower volume in the anterior hippocampus
what did Maguire conclude from his study ?
. the study showed that regional differences between the hippocampus in London Taxi drivers and in the control group
. it seems that relying on navigational skills in your job, increases your posterior hippocampus
what is a disorder ?
an illness that alters our normal, physical or mental functioning
what is the basis to Freuds Psychosexual stages of development ?
Freud believed that sexual instincts are already present in newborn children. In children, the sexual instinct is directed towards their own body through a series of different erotogenic zones.
what was the oral stage of Freuds Psychosexual stages of development ?
In this stage, the child derives satisfaction from sucking at the mother’s breast or other substitutes (e.g. a dummy/their thumb)
what was the anal stage of Freuds Psychosexual stages of development ?
The child receives pleasure from the anus and from holding back their stool until it builds up and brings about violent muscular contractions
what was the phallic stage of Freuds Psychosexual stages of development ?
where children become aware of their genitals and differences between boys and girls (i.e. in their genitals).
what is the oedipus complex ?
A subconscious sexual desire where a boy desires his mother and wants to possess her, this leads the boy to compete with his father in a hostile way but also fear castration because of the sexual
desire.
what is castration anxiety ?
A boy’s fear that his penis will be chopped off as punishment for his unconscious desires for his mother
what is a phobia ?
An intense fear of an object, activity or situation which is out of proportion to the danger presented and causes an impairment in functioning
what is psychoanalysis ?
Type of therapy involving talking to the patient and analysing their thoughts and dreams to bring the unconscious conflicts into the open
what was the aim of Freuds study ?
To investigate the case of Little Hans, a young boy who was experiencing a phobia, and to provide evidence to support his theory of psychosexual development.
who was little hans ?
nearly 3 year old boy, from Vienna Austria.
what was the procedure of Freud’s study ?
1). Hans’ father recorded details of Hans’ behaviours and conversations, and made his own interpretations. He would then send these in a weekly letter to Freud
2). Freud replied with his own interpretations of the behaviours and conversations, and would give guidance on what Hans’ father should be discussing with Hans, and which behaviours to look out for.
what was evidence for the oedipus complex in Freuds study ?
This is shown through his attempts to seduce his mother.
The giraffe fantasy:
This is further evidence of Hans experiencing the Oedipus complex as the big giraffe represents his dad (long neck representing the penis) and the crumpled giraffe is his mother (her vagina).
In his fantasy, there were 2 giraffes. A big one and a ‘crumpled’ one. As Hans takes the ‘crumpled’ one away the big one calls out. Then Hans sits on top of the ‘crumpled’ one until the big one stops calling.
what was the 1st plumber fantasy in Freuds study about ?
While having a bath, Hans reported ‘the plumber came and unscrewed it. Then he took a big borer and stuck it in my stomach’.
Later that day he admitted that he was scared that his mother would let go of him and his head would go under water.
This is evidence of his fear of being punished for his fantasies and desires for his mother.
what was the reasoning behind Hans phobia of Horses in Freuds study ?
Hans had a fear of being bitten by a horse, particularly white horses with blinkers.
Hans’ father had a black moustache and wore glasses.
what did Freud conclude from his study ?
- His psychosexual stages of development.
- That boys during the phallic stage develop an Oedipus complex (little Hans wanted his father ‘out of the way’ so that he could have the affections of his mother all to himself)
- That phobias are the result of unconscious anxieties which have been displaced onto external objects (the fear of his father finding out about his desires displaced into a fear of horses)
what is the “Triad of Improvements” model from Baron-Cohens study ?
a model illustrating the difficulties autistic people share:
- social communication (ability to read facial expressions)
- social interaction (ability to behave normally around others)
- social imagination (ability to predict what may happen next to anticipate danger)
what was the Aim of Baron-Cohens study ?
To develop an advanced test of the theory of mind”, but this time with adults to test Autism.
what were the 2 hypothesis of Baron-Cohens study ?
1). predicted that participants in Group 1 would show improvement in the Eyes Task.
2). predicted that ‘normal’ females would perform better in the eyes task than ‘normal’ males.
what did Baron-Cohen’s sample consist of ?
two groups
who were in the 1st group of Baron-Cohens study ?
.16 people
. with High-functioning Autism or Aspergers
. mean age 29yrs
who were in the 2nd group of Baron-Cohens study ?
. 50 people
. considered ‘normal’
. half male, half female
. mean age 30yrs
. selected at random
what were the conditions that participants in Baron-Cohens study tested in ?
individually in a quiet room either at home, or a researchers clinic
how many tasks were the participants in Baron-cohens Study given ?
4 tasks
what was ‘The Eyes Task’ in Baron-Cohens Study ?
. participants were shown 25 photographs in Black & White of different peoples eyes
. participants were then asked “which word best described what the person is feeling ?”
. they were given 2 mental state terms to choose from
how was ‘The Eyes Task’ developed in Baron-Cohens Study ?
photographs were shown to 4 judges, where they all came to the same agreement on what they believed the person was feeling
they then all decided on the Foil (opposite word), to be used for the 2nd option for the particpant to choose from
what was ‘The Strange Stories Task’ in Baron-Cohens Study ?
. participants were presented with 2 examples of 12 story types (lie, white lie, joke, figure of speech, and irony)
. in each story the character would say something which is not litter ally true, and the participant would be asked to explain what the character said or did
. the answers were marked either ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’
what were the 2 other tasks used for ?
control tasks
why was the The Strange Stories Task included ?
in order to ensure The Eyes Task, was indeed tapping theory of mind.
it it was then there would be a correlation between the 2 tasks.
what were the results of Baron-Cohens Study ?
those with autism or asperges syndrome scored lower on The Eyes Task (16.3), compared to the ‘normal’ participants who scored (20.3).
what did they conclude from Baron-Cohens Study ?
- that despite autistic or Asperger syndrome usually have above average intelligence, they have a subtle defect in their mindreading ability
- females had a better mindreading ability than males
what was the background to Gould (Yerkes) study ?
Gould wanted to find out whether intelligence could be altered by environmental factors such as education
what was the AIM of Gould (Yerkes) study ?
To prove that psychology could be as rigorous a science as physics.
what was the sample of Gould (Yerkes) study ?
1.75 million men from the US Army (from WW1)
what were the 3 test that Gould (Yerkes) developed to test the Men in the US Army’s intelligence ?
Alpha Test
Beta Test
Individual Examination
what was the Alpha Test in Gould (Yerkes) study ?
. written examination given to literate recruits
. included 8 parts
. took less than 1 hr to complete
. included (sequences, scrambling)
what was the Beta Test in Gould (Yerkes) study ?
- test designed for illiterate recruites and those who failed the Alpha Test
- 7 parts
- took less than 1 hr to complete
- included (maze running, cube counting) and a picture section
what was the Individual Examination in Gould (Yerkes) study ?
it was a test that the recruits who failed both the Alpha and Beta tests
how were the recruits graded in Gould (Yerkes) study ?
from E to A
(recruits who scored less than than C-, were considered to have low intelligence)
why can the validity and the reliability of Gould (Yerkes) study be challenged ?
the administration of the tests was inconsistent amongst all the camps
those who were illiterate in English or those who failed the Alpha test,were required to complete the Beta test.
however many did not
also, those who failed the test were required to take a individual examination, however again many did not.
what were the results from Gould (Yerkes) study ?
- the average mental age of white american adults was 13 (just above the level of a ‘moron’)
- immigrants and darker people of southern Europe were found to be less intelligent than white people
- black Americans and Jews were least intelligent
what did Gould (Yerkes) conclude from their study ?
. due to systematic errors many minority groups were considered to have low intelligence (jews, african americans etc), leading to the introduction of many immigration laws
. when WW2 happened, many tried to flee europe but were unable to because of the new restrictions leading to what Gould (Yerkes) believed caused the death of millions of people
who are Psychopaths ?
people who often come across as charming, intelligent and articulate.
however underneath they lack any empathy and see other people as there to be used in order to achieve their own personal ends
they are extremely self-centered and manipulative
make up 1% of the general population
what is the method used to measure psychopathy ?
the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R)
how many traits does the PCL-R test ?
20 traits
what was the Aim of Hancocks study ?
To investigate whether psychopaths use language different to non-psychopaths.
(can we detect whether someone is a psychopath based on how they speak)
what was hancocks sample ?
52 male murderers from Canadian prisons
volunteered to take part
- 14 were psychopaths
- 38 non-psychopaths
what was the 1st step of the procedure in Hancocks study ?
Assessed by a trained prison psychologist using the PCL-R
The cut off for psychopathy was 25 or above (standard cut off for research)
Factor 1 - Interpersonal and affective traits
Factor 2 – Anti-social lifestyle and behavioural problems
10 randomly picked files checked by another psychologist - IRR = 0.94
what was the 2nd step of the procedure in Hancocks study ?
participants were asked to describe their homicide offence in as much detail as possible
25 mins
(2 senior psychology graduates & 1 research assistant)
dialogue was transcribed
what was the 3rd step of the procedure in Hancocks study ?
The speech was analysed using two computer programmes:
- WMatrix
- DAL
what does the computer programme WMatrix do ?
analysed the percentage of each feature of language used (use of nouns, verbs, disfluencies, etc.)
what does the computer programme DAL do ?
compared used of emotional language (positive vs negative emotions, high vs low intensity, etc.) by each individual
what were the results from Hancocks study ?
. Psychopaths (1.82% of their speech) used more subordinating conjunctions (because, since, as, so that) than controls (1.54%). This suggests a more causal view – I committed the murder because…
. Psychopaths talked more about basic needs (sex, food, shelter) and less about higher level needs (meaningful relationships, family, spirituality)
. Psychopaths tended to use less pleasant and less intense emotional words, as well a using significantly more disfluencies in their speech
what did Hancock conclude from his study ?
The language that psychopaths use to describe emotional events like their crimes is different from non-psychopaths.
- they seem to operate on a lower emotional level
what is the psychodynamic perspective ?
Our behaviour and feelings are strongly influenced by our unconscious mind (which we are not aware of)
There are 3 parts to our personality - the Id, ego and superego
The ego uses defense mechanisms to protect us from feelings of anxiety or guilt
what is the Principle of the Biological Area ?
suggests our behaviour is a result of our physiology (genetics, hormones, or brain structure and functioning).
what are the concepts of the Biological Area ?
Brain plasticity
Lateralisation of function
Delay of gratification
Regions of the brain (and their specialist functions)
Genetic predisposition
what is Sperry’s link to the Biological Area ?
Patients who had undergone a commissurotomy (split-brain surgery) participants could not say what they saw or felt when objects were presented to the right hemisphere of the brain. Shows language is processed in the left hemisphere. Also shows the role of the corpus callosum in communication between the two hemispheres.
what is Blakemore and Coopers link to the Biological Area ?
Provided evidence for brain plasticity as the kittens visual neurons had adapted to the pattern of stripes they saw in the cylinder. The kitten in the vertical cylinder could no longer see horizontal orientations and the brain did not respond to them (and vice versa for the horizontal cat).
what is Caseys link to the Biological Area ?
Showed that there are brain differences between people who are high and low delayers (high and low self-control). Suggests that the inferior frontal gyrus is important for self-control, whereas the ventral striatum responds to rewarding stimuli.
what is Maguires link to the Biological Area ?
Provided evidence for brain plasticity. London taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampus compared to the control group, and a smaller anterior hippocampus. Their brains had changed based on the demands of their job.
what are the strengths of the Biological Area ?
+ Highly scientific approach using standardised, replicable procedures
+ Lab experiments allow higher control over extraneous variables (cause and effect can be established)
+ Experimental methods are reliable
Avoids ethnocentrism
what are the Weaknesses of the Biological Area ?
- May be of limited practical use as biological factors are difficult to change
- Can often involve studying a single biological cause of complex behaviour (reductionist)
- Low ecological validity when lab experiments used
what are some applications of the Biological Area ?
.Genetic screening for disorders
.Rehabilitation after brain injury to restore functioning (based on brain plasticity)
.Biological treatments of disorders such as SSRIs, ECT or TMS to treat depression
what are principles of the individual differences area ?
focuses on what makes people unique, often investigating those who behaviour is abnormal.
what are the key concepts of the individual differences area ?
. measuring differences
. understanding mental disorders
. native intellectual ability
. theory of the mind
how does Freud’s study link to the individual differences area ?
investigates thecase of a boy experincing a phobia of horses and getting in the bath (abnormal behaviour). Freud tried to explain this through his theory of the oedipus complex(the phobia was result of an unconscious desirefor his mother anda fear of his father
how does Baren-Cohen study link to the individual differences area ?
investigated differences in people with autism in their ability to recognise complex emotions (as a result of a deficit in their mind ). participant with autism found it difficult to identify complex emotions from peoples eyes.
how does Gould(Yerkes) study link to the individual differences area?
yerkes developed the Alpha and Beta tests of intelligence to measure differences between US army recruits.
he suggested that people differ in native intellectual ability (people from some cultures are less intelligent than that of other cultures due to genetics.)
gould was criticising the validity of these tests due to cultural bias in how they were developed.
how does Hancocks studylink to the individual differences area ?
it measured differences in people with psychopathy in how they use language.
the finding’s showed that psychopaths who have commited murder tended to use more disinfluences (hesitating in speech) and used more subordinate conjunctions and refermore to basic level needs. the results indicated they operate on a lower level of emotional development.
what are some applications of the individual differences area?
.teaching children with autism about the the theory of the mind and how to recognise different emotional states
. developing effective psychometric test which can be used in recruitment
. developing psychological treatments for disorders
. psychometric tests to determine sporting success
what are the strengths of the individual differences
+useful in developing treatments for individuals with disorders
+ holistic approach means we can get a fuller understanding of how factors interact to produce complex behaviours
