unit 2 try 2

Question 1

Piaget’s scientific interests

Answer 1

cognitive, structures (way we think), developmental, qualitative (discontinuous/stage-like)

Question 2

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

Answer 2

starts with reflexes and schemes, ends with beginning to understand symbols and vocabulary explosion
no “thinking”, thinks through seeing, hearing, grasping and is instead acting on the world
no “symbolic thought” (cannot hold images, words, or concepts in the head that stand for things in the real world)
o Instead, baby “knows” by anticipating familiar, recurring objects and events and “thinks” by behaving towards them with sensory-motor instruments in predictable, organized ways
- A not B error

Question 3

circular reactions

Answer 3

repeating something over and over again
o Primary: repetition of an interesting behavior that involves baby’s own body
o Secondary: repetition of an interesting behavior that involves objects
o Tertiary: first experimentation: child searches for novelty by introducing variations into familiar events; exploring objects for new ways to act on them, but not planned in advance
- part of the sensorimotor stage

Question 4

Mechanisms of development

Answer 4

what leads a child from one stage to the next
- assimilation, accommodation, nature and nurture

Question 5

assimilation

Answer 5

adapting external stimuli to fit one’s own internal cognitive structures
* Interpret what you encounter in the world based on what you already know

Question 6

accommodation

Answer 6

adapting one’s cognitive structure to the structure of stimuli
* Change the way you think to handle new stimulation in the world
 Anytime you have an encounter you are simultaneously assimilating and accommodating

Question 7

Piaget’s thoughts on role of nature and nurture

Answer 7

Piaget sees both as important (nature because all students go through the same stages in the same order) but also nurture (experience) plays a role because we need to assimilate and accommodate
* His view of nurture is different because he doesn’t see the child as passive

Question 8

Formal operational

Answer 8

• Thought is logical AND flexible
• Unlike concrete operational thinkers, CAN reason about abstract, hypothetical, and contrary-to-fact (counterfactual) ideas
• Can engage in deductive scientific reasoning and hypothesis testing
• Most mature form of cognition; more information may be acquired, but no new “cognitive structures”

Question 9

tasks that distinguish between concrete and formal operational

Answer 9

o Abstract, hypothetical, or contrary-to-fact logical/deductive reasoning
o Combinatorial thinking task: determines whether a person can determine all possible combinations of a number of variables
 Concrete operational would randomly try things
o Proportional thinking tasks: the person think about mathematical relationships in an abstract relational or proportional manner
 Marbles in a jar, take out 80 and put x’s on them then you put them back in and mix and take out 75 and 15 have x’s on them. How many marbles are in the jar?
 Concrete operational would add 60 to 80 and get 140 because they are not thinking about the proportions
 Two different containers with same number, take 10 out and put it in the second, then take 10 out of the one with now the mix of the two and put it in the other and which one has more of the opposite color? equal
 Balance scale task: which side of the balance scale will go down?
 Isolation of variables problem (pendulum task): did you make two pendulums alike in three way and different in one, isolate one variable at a time

Question 10

positive feature of Piaget’s theories

Answer 10

• accommodation model correctly portrays us as active constructive, cognitive processors (assimilation)
• emphasizes importance of intrinsic motives for cognitive processing and growth
• Piaget has furnished the field with a “zillion developable”, and much of what he has found is replicable and probably right: found a lot of interesting behaviors at certain ages that give insight into children’s heads
• First large-scale, detailed vision of what human cognitive development might look like. Even his critics concede that he was a genius

Question 11

negative feature of Piaget’s theories

Answer 11

vague, unclear, and hard to operationally define theoretical concepts making them untestable
- research wa often thin and methodologically weak: good theorist but no good researcher
- tend to over-interpret his data
-made human cog development look more neat, orderly, and unform than it probably is
- underestimated the capabilities of young Children
- overestimate the capabilities of older children

Question 12

Perspective taking

Answer 12

o Example of a domain where Piaget underestimate the capabilities of young children
o Perspective taking – understanding what another person sees, thinks, knows, feels, etc.
 Why should we care: enables children to communicate and influence others and overall important for social interactions

Question 13

Piaget’s three mountains task

Answer 13

used to measure visual perspective taking
* He believes children are egocentric until 7 years
o However, might have difficulty to remember what it looked like/ spatial skills which is a hard task
 If you make the task easier they do much better at a much younger age

Question 14

Flavell’s alternative description: level 1 perspective-taking

Answer 14

o Age 2/3
o Knowledge of what another person sees vs. doesn’t see (e.g., “block task”)
o Knowns that to see an object, a person must have an eye open that is aimed at object with no obstacles; what child sees is irrelevant for what other sees
o Enables percept production (showing an object to another), percept deprivation (hide an object), and percept diagnosis (figuring out what somebody else sees)
o But assumes that if 2 people can see the same object, it looks the same to them

Question 15

Flavell’s alternative description; Level 2 visual perspective-taking

Answer 15

o Age 4 or 5
o Self and other can see the same object but have it look different to each because of differing positions (e.g. turtle)
 2 yr old would say they both see it on it’s back since that’s the way they’re facing but at age 4 they will say they see it upside-down

Question 16

conceptual perspective-taking definition

Answer 16

understanding what other people know/think

Question 17

False belief task

Answer 17

(pass at 4/5): can child know that someone has different belief that is false or different then they’re own
- conceptual perspective-taking example
 3 year old fails it by thinking that they know the truth and so can’t believe that someone has a different belief
 Common development may explain why the can do both visual perspective taking and conceptual perspective-taking around the same time
- What’s changing is that they’re developing “theory of mind”
o Child moves from thinking the mind has direct access to “the truth” (passively copies reality) to realizing that the mind interprets (mentally represents) the world

Question 18

Appearance-reality task

Answer 18

o Appearance: what does it look like? A sponge or a rock
o Reality: what is it really? A sponge or a rock
 3 year old will fail by giving the same answer both questions: unable to separate the difference
 4/5 will say it looks like a rock but is truly a sponge, able to determine between appearance and reality
 Also typically “passed” by age 4-5 years
- example of conceptual perspective-taking

Question 19

Causality

Answer 19

o Understanding cause and effect allows child to understand the world – predict future, have control by initiating causes that will bring about desired effects
o Understanding causality represents an end-point in development –adults have “naïve theories” of causality
 Don’t think about rules that we uses for causality

Question 20

Priority principle

Answer 20

rule used for causality
o Priority: causes come before effects
 Always true
-passed by age 3

Question 21

temporal contiguity

Answer 21

causes and effects tend to happen close together in time
- can violate but often true
-rule used for causality
-passed by age 4

Question 22

spatial contiguity

Answer 22

causes and effects tend to come close together in space
- can violate but often true
- ruse used for causality
-passed by age 4

Question 23

pre-causaility

Answer 23

 Piaget: children are pre-causal until 7/8
* Had children explain natural and mechanical phenomena: why do clouds move, why do boats float, how does an engine work
o Errors they’d make:
 Animism: endowing inanimate objects with animate properties
* Ex. Why do clouds move? Because they want to
* Indifferent to temporal sequence: put the effect before the cause
* Piaget’s questions were too hard, and asking them to explain something and they may not have the words to explain it, the way question is asked also impacted answer
o Why do clouds move = animism
o What makes clouds move = no animism
* If you make the class less verbal, and more similar they can do it

Question 24

Priority vs. Spatial contiguity

Answer 24

when could be either priority or spatial, 4 yrs old picked priority since it’s always true

Question 25

One-to-one principle:

Answer 25

one distinctive number, and only one, number name to each object

Question 26

Stable-order principle

Answer 26

use number names in same order each time

Question 27

cardinal principle

Answer 27

last number name you use, tells you how many of them there are

Question 28

Abstraction principle

Answer 28

anything can be counted

Question 29

Order-irrelevance principle

Answer 29

it doesn’t matter in which order the objects are counted

Question 30

Numerical reasoning principles

Answer 30

knowing what transformations do or do not change the number of object (ex. Changing color vs. add or subtracting one)

Question 31

Gelmen’s mouse study

Answer 31

when determining basic numerical abilities If engaging and with less numbers the children do better -  Ask which is the winner? They’ll pick the one with 3 mice, then they take out the middle one and ask which is the winner and they become confused so they didn’t pick it based on how long the row is so it must be that they were going off of the number there was * as early as 3 years old * not fueled because we brought down the numbers, made it more engaging, and asking who the winner is

Question 32

infant numerosity

Answer 32

 3 vs. 2 objects: use habituation-dishabituation – start with 3 objects till they’re habituated (different objects but always 3), now you present 2 objects and they dishabituate * 6th to 8th month olds can tell the difference

Question 33

intermodal perception

Answer 33

* Matching number across sight and sound (6-8 month olds) o Shown two screens, one with 2 and one with 3 with eh same objects and hear a drum beat when it comes on speaker (either 2 or 3). After a number of trials they look at the screen who’s number matches the number of drum beats  Another example of intermodal perception * Visual

Question 34

children as experts

Answer 34

increases memory: o Connections among concepts in domain of expertise can also aid memory – one item triggers others (dinosaur expert example) interconnected

Question 35

effects of expertise on problem solving

Answer 35

- increase and more effective planning - allows for Greater metacognition - experts look very cognitively mature when functioning in their domain expertise

Question 36

language 0-6 months

Answer 36

-lack of intentional communication - older look more at faces and eyes while younger look at edges of face - babies start to coo

Question 37

language 6-12 months

Answer 37

- babbling which leads to first words - intentional communication (gestures, sounds) - follow another person's attention

Question 38

Baldwin study

Answer 38

figure out what someone is looking at to learn a new word - happens 6-12 months

Question 39

Follow-in labeling condition

Answer 39

look at what the child is holding and label it - happens 6-12 months

Question 40

discrepant labeling condition

Answer 40

what the adult is looking at is the name of the object they are saying - happens 6-12 months

Question 41

language comprehension

Answer 41

child starts to understand words - happens 6-12 months

Question 42

language 12-18 months

Answer 42

 Language comprehension improves dramatically  Progress in language production (but slower) * Comprehension precedes production (400 word vocabulary)

Question 43

language 18-24 months

Answer 43

 Language production improves dramatically (vocab spurt)  2-5 word sentences: learning grammar for the first time (50-200 words) * Vocabulary also doubles * Toddler learning 30 words a day

Question 44

skinner- behaviorist view (nurture)

Answer 44

* Language is learned just like any other behavior (modeling, reinforcement) child passive o Argue you can start teaching language in prenatal development: prenatal university  No research supporting it

Question 45

Chomsky – nativist view (nature)

Answer 45

* Environment doesn’t give enough support for rapid language development so instead humans are born to learn language o All have a language acquisition device (LAD) that allows us to acquire language with minimal input  If you look beneath the surface all languages have the same component: Deep structure (lang. universal) vs. object words and word order: surface structure

Question 46

Role of environment on language development

Answer 46

need more then mere exposure imitation - yes: young children DO imitate language and some use imitation as a strategy for vocabulary development - NO: comprehension precedes production reinforcement - yes: recast/expansion: parent reforms sentences and expands upon it to make it more grammatically correct and exact repetition - no: parents tend to reinforce truth value and ignore grammar

Question 47

role of biology in language

Answer 47

specialized brain region for processing language babbling even in deaf babies sensitive period for language - Case of Genie - New port studies categorical perception: adults hear sounds categorically and so do babies babies can hear all sounds but loose it when they start learning language

Question 48

Role of other child predisposition/capabilities (not necessarily “biological”)

Answer 48

* Symbolic thought * Object permanence * Evidence from morpheme acquisition: word endings that modify the meaning  Biases that aid in word learning * Assumption of taxonomic organization: new words tend to refer to object categories not to the specific object, property of the object, one of it’s parts or it’s relation to other things * Mutual exclusivity bias: objects have one name o Assume new word applies to new object and not the object they already know child as a rule learner

Question 49

"wug" study

Answer 49

 Don’t just hear things and memorize them: they actually learn language rules that allow them to apply them to new situations with new words * “wug” study: said something is a wug and then saying there’s two of them and they add an s to make it plural – do it at an early age o Don’t just that children learn by memorizing: need to be using and applying rules

Question 50

Baumrind’s classic studies

Answer 50

 Identify types of children and compare their parents to see if they are doing something differently  Identify types of parents and compare their children

Question 51

Baumrind's study identifying types of children and comparing to parents

Answer 51

four categories of kids: positive mood, exploration, self-control, self-reliance and peer affiliation Based on home visits and lab tests, parents rated on parental control, maturity demands, parent-child communication and nurturance - compenent children were strong in all four (authoritative

Question 52

Baumrind study: types of parents compared to their children

Answer 52

authoritative parent's children are high in social responsibility and independence, have high control and high warmth

Question 53

Authoritarian

Answer 53

value obedience and respect for authority, discourage verbal give and take, my way or the high way, because I said so, punitive means of enforcing rules

Question 54

Permissive

Answer 54

avoid exercising control, make few demands, give child lots of freedom, accepting and positive towards the child

Question 55

Authoritative

Answer 55

expect child to conform to adult standards, yet want then to be independent and seld-directed, rules are because behaviors are important, accepting and positive, encourage verbal give and take, explain things to child, use power if necessary but would rather explain and have the child want to behave well, recognize rights of child and adult not rights aren’t equal, negotiate, be influenced on sound reasoning, do what’s best for child

Question 56

Indifferent-uninvolved

Answer 56

New one she missed - Indifferent-uninvolved (neglectful): low control, low warmth

Question 57

warmth in parenting

Answer 57

always good to show warmth to child (Watson said bad but is good)

Question 58

power assertion

Answer 58

power assertion (punishment, grounding, threats) are bad since it works well when the parent is there but it leads to poor internalization (unlikely to accept the rule as their own and as important.

Question 59

induction

Answer 59

* Induction is explaining the rule and why it’s important. This leads to child behaving well when you are not watching and accepting it as their own (good internalization) * Links between control type and parenting style o Authoritarian more likely to use power assertion and authorities uses induction

Question 60

Long-term “consequences” of good parent child relationship

Answer 60

o Lamborn et al. study of 4000 high school students  Psychosocial development  School competence: how good they are, GPA  Internalized distress: anxiety and depression  Problem behaviors: during and alcohol use, school misconduct and dilemmas * Authoritative is high in psychosocial and school and low in internalized and problem, best outcomes across the board * Indiverent-uninvolved: associated with worse outcome * Authoritarian and permissive were about equal in outcome

Question 61

universal goals of parenting

Answer 61

 Physical survival/health  Child acquires behaviors that enable economic self-sufficency  Child acquires other behaviors valued by culture * what those behaviors are may vary across cultures

Question 62

Hoffman study: asked what they want their child to have and all had...

Answer 62

o To do well in school o To mind parents o To be independent & self-reliant o To be a good person  Don’t homogenize groups: not all Asian cultures the same  Implications: best parenting styles may vary across cultures, depending on goal  Ordering varied across cultures * U.S.: being a good person, then independent and self-reliant