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PASG 60200 Physiology > Unit 2 Exam > Flashcards

Unit 2 Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical messengers = controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs

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2
Q

What is the function of neurotransmitters?

A

released by axon terminals of neurons → the synaptic junctions and act locally to control nerve cell functions

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3
Q

What is the function of endocrine hormones?

A

secreted by glands/specialized cells → released into circulating blood to act on target cells at another part of body

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4
Q

What is the function of neuroendocrine hormones?

A

secreted by neurons → released into circulating blood to act on target cells at another part of body

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5
Q

What are paracrines?

A

secreted by cells of one tissue into ECF → affect different tissue of the same organ

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6
Q

What are autocrines?

A

secreted by cells into ECF → affects same cell type

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7
Q

What are cytokines?

A

peptides secreted by cells into ECF

  • acts as autocrines, paracrines, or endocrine hormones
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8
Q

Where is norepinephrine produced?

A

adrenal medulla of adrenal gland

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9
Q

What kind of chemical messenger is norepinephrine?

A

neurotransmitter

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10
Q

What neurotransmitter do somatic motor neurons release?

A

acetylcholine

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11
Q

What kind of effects (stimulatory or inhibitory) do neurons of the somatic nervous system have?

A

always simulatory

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12
Q

In the autonomic nervous system, what neurotransmitter do preganglionic fibers always release?

A

acetylcholine

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13
Q

In the autonomic nervous system what neurotransmitters do post-ganglionic fibers release?

A

norepinephrine
acetylcholine

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14
Q

What kind of effects (stimulatory or inhibitory) do neurons of the autonomic nervous system have?

A

both stimulatory or inhibitory depending on type of receptor

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15
Q

Which nervous system (somatic or autonomic) is heavily myelinated?

A

somatic nervous system

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16
Q

What is the effector organ of the somatic nervous system?

A

skeletal muscles

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17
Q

How many neurons does it take to reach the effector organ in the somatic nervous system?

A

1 neuron

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18
Q

How many neurons does it take to reach the effector organ in the autonomic nervous system?

A

2 neurons (pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic)

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19
Q

What are the effector organs of the autonomic nervous system

A

smooth muscle
cardiac muscle
glands

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20
Q

What are the 2 branches of the Autonomic Nervous system?

A

parasympathetic
sympathetic

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21
Q

What neurotransmitter does the Parasympathetic Nervous System release?

A

acetylcholine

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22
Q

What neurotransmitter does the Sympathetic Nervous System release?

A

norepinephrine

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23
Q

What type of nerve fibers are the pre-ganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous system made out of?

A

Type B

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24
Q

What type of tissue are glands made out of?

A

epithelia

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25
Q

What is a gland?

A

one or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid

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26
Q

What are the 2 things that glands are classified by?

A
  • site of product release
  • relative number of cells forming the gland (unicellular or multicellular)
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27
Q

What are the 2 different glands?

A

endocrine
exocrine

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28
Q

What is an endocrine gland?

A

internally secreting directly into the blood or nearby tissue/interstitial fluid

ductless gland

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29
Q

What is an exocrine gland?

A

externally secreting through a duct = multicellular

glands of external secretion

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30
Q

What are the 3 different ways exocrine glands secrete material?

A

holocrine
merocrine
apocrine

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31
Q

What are 3 examples of exocrine glands?

A

salivary; sweat; that in GI tract

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32
Q

What are 2 examples of unicellular exocrine glands?

A

globet cells and mucus

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33
Q

What are the 3 types of cell signaling that intracrine glands use?

A

autocrine
paracrine
endocrine

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34
Q

What is the mode of apocrine secretion of exocrine glands?

A

glands lose portion of cell membrane to secrete hormones

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35
Q

What is the mode of merocrine secretion of exocrine glands?

A

vesicle and exocytosis

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36
Q

What is the mode of holocrine secretion of exocrine glands?

A

whole secretory cell ruptures

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37
Q

What are the 4 precursors from which hormones can be made from?

A

fatty acids
amino acids
peptides
steroids

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38
Q

What is the mode of intracrine cell signaling with endocrine glands?

A

cell makes hormones that will act within itself

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39
Q

What are the 6 ways hormones control body functions?

A
  • reproduction
  • growth and development
  • mobilization of body defenses
  • maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance
  • regulates cellular metabolism
  • regulates energy balance
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40
Q

What are the 3 general classes of hormones?

A
  • proteins/polypeptides
  • steroids
  • derivatives of tyrosine amino acid
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41
Q

What are 3 glands that produce protein/polypeptide hormones?

A

pituitary gland
pancreas
parathyroid gland

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42
Q

What are the 4 organs/glands that produce steroid hormones?

A

Testes
Ovaries
Placenta
Adrenal Cortex

TOPAc

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43
Q

What are the 2 glands that secrete hormones that are derived from tyrosine?

A

Thyroid
Adrenal Medulla

TAm

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44
Q

What are the 3 locations for the different types of hormone receptors?

A

Cell membrane surface
Cytoplasm
Nucleus

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45
Q

What hormones are cell membrane receptors specifically mostly for?

A

Protein
Peptide
Catecholamines

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46
Q

What hormones mainly bind to hormone receptors found in the cell’s cytoplasm?

A

steroid hormones

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47
Q

What hormones bind to hormone receptors found in the nucleus?

A

thyroid hormones

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48
Q

In endocrine cells, where are protein/polypeptide hormones made? What are they called?

A

rough endoplasmic reticulum

preprohormones

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49
Q

What happens after the protein/polypeptide hormones are made?

A

cleaved to form smaller prohormones → Golgi apparatus → packaged into secretory vesicles

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50
Q

What happens after the prohormones are packaged?

A

enzymes in secretory vesicles cleave prohormones = become active hormones

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51
Q

How are protein/polypeptide hormones secreted?

A

secretory vesicles containing prohormones stay within cytoplasm or bound to cell membrane UNTIL secretion is needed = stimulus needed for exocytosis

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52
Q

What are the 2 ways exocytosis is stimulated when releasing protein/polypeptide hormones?

A

↑ cytosolic [Ca2+]
-or-
stimulation of endocrine cell surface receptor = ↑ cAMP

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53
Q

Are peptide hormones water insoluble or soluble?

A

Water soluble

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54
Q

What are the 5 endocrine glands?

A

Thyroid
Adrenal
Pineal
Pituitary
Parathyroid

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55
Q

What does nervous system modulation mean?

A

nervous system can override normal endocrine controls when it is in stress

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56
Q

What is an example of nervous system modulation in action?

Stress: low glucose level

A

Normal = endocrine system maintains blood glucose levels

Under stress: hypothalamus and sympathetic nervous system are activated to supply enough glucose

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57
Q

What are the 5 actions hormones have on target cells?

A
  • alter plasma membrane permeability of membrane potential via ion channels
  • stimulate synthesis of proteins or regulatory molecules
  • activate/deactivate enzyme systems
  • induce secretory activity
  • stimulate mitosis
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58
Q

What are the 2 mechanisms of hormone action?

A

water soluble hormones (amino-acid based hormones except thyroid hormones) = receptors on cell surface → G-protein coupled receptors

lipid soluble hormones (steroid and thyroid hormones) = intracellular receptors = directly activate genes

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59
Q

What are the 6 major hormones that contribute to homeostasis?

A
  • thyroid hormone
  • cortisol
  • mineralcorticoids
  • vasopressin (ADH)
  • parathyroid hormone
  • insulin
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60
Q

How does the Thyroid Hormone contribute to homeostasis? Where is it typically found?

A

controls basal metabolism in most tissues

found in thyroid

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61
Q

How does Cortisol contribute to homeostasis? Where is it typically found?

A
  • energy metabolism
  • permissive action for other hormones

found in adrenal cortex

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62
Q

How do Mineralocorticoids contribute to homeostasis? Where is it typically found?

A

regulates plasma volume via effects on serum electrolytes

found in the adrenal cortex

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63
Q

How does Vasopressin contribute to homeostasis? Where is it typically found?

A

regulates plasma volume via effects on water secretion

found in the posterior pituitary

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64
Q

How does the Parathyroid Hormone contribute to homeostasis? Where is it typically found?

A

regulates Ca2+ and phosphorus levels

found in parathyroids

65
Q

How does Insulin contribute to homeostasis? Where is it typically found?

A

regulates plasma glucose concentration

66
Q

What are the 5 simple steps of cAMP signaling mechanism to activate protein kinases upon hormone-receptor binding?

A

hormone binds to receptor → G-protein activated = activates adenylate cyclase → ATP to cAMP → cAMP activates protein kinases

67
Q

How is cAMP rapidly degraded?

A

by enzyme phosphodiesterase

68
Q

What are the 15 hormones that use the cAMP second messenger system?

A
  • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
  • angiotensin II (epithelial cells)
  • calcitonin
  • catecholamines
  • follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • glucagon
  • growth-hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
  • human chorionic growth hormone (hCG)
  • luteinizing hormone (LH)
  • parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  • secretin
  • somatostatin
  • TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
  • vasopressin
69
Q

What is the PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism?

A

amino-acid based hormone binds to GPCR → activates Gq → activates phospholipase C → splits PIP2 = DAG and IP3 → DAG activates protein kinases; IP3 = release Ca2+ → Ca2+ alters enzyme/channel/or binds to calmodulin (regulatory protein)

70
Q

What is the function of Phospholipase C?

A

breaks down phospholipid PIP2 (found within the membrane bilayer) into 2 secondary messengers = DAG and IP3

71
Q

What is the function of IP3?

A

mobilizes Ca2+ ions from mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum

72
Q

How do hormones with intracellular target receptors direct gene activation? (steps)

A

hormone diffuses into target cell → bind to intracellular receptor → receptor-hormone complex enters nucleus → complex binds to specific DNA region = prompts transcription = mRNA = protein synthesis

73
Q

Which hormone mechanism is faster? GPCR on cell surfaces OR intracellular target receptors?

A

GPCR on cell surfaces = faster

intracellular target receptors = slower

74
Q

What are the 3 factors target cells require to be activated?

A
  • hormone concentration in bloodstream
  • relative number of receptors on/in target cell
  • binding-affinity btwn hormone and receptor
75
Q

What are the 2 mechanisms in which hormones influence the number of their receptors?

A

upregulation
down-regulation

76
Q

How are hormone receptors up-regulated?

A

target cells form receptors in response to the hormone

77
Q

How are hormone receptors down-regulated?

A

target cells lose receptors (via some degradation) in response to hormone

78
Q

What are the 2 ways in which hormones circulate in the bloodstream?

A

Free = water soluble hormones that circulate w/o carriers

Bound = steroids and thyroid hormone (lipid soluble hormones) = attached to plasma proteins

79
Q

What are the 2 things the concentration of a circulating hormone relfects?

A

rate of release
speed of inactivation/removal from body

80
Q

What are the 4 ways hormones are removed from the bloodstream?

A
  • degrading enzymes
  • kidneys
  • liver
  • half-life
81
Q

What controls the hormone concentration in the bloodstream?

A

negative feedback systems

82
Q

What are the 3 stimuli that affect the synthesis and release of hormones?

A
  • humoral
  • neural
  • hormonal
83
Q

What is humoral stimuli?

A

change in ion and nutrient concentration in bloodstream = directly stimulates secretion of hormones

84
Q

How does the body increase levels of Ca2+ in the bloodstream when levels are low?

A

declining blood [Ca2+] = stimulates parathyroid to secrete PTH → PTH causes [Ca2+] to increase = removes humoral stimulus = stops secretion of PTH

85
Q

How does a neural stimuli affect the synthesis and release of hormones?

A

nerve fivers stimulate hormone release

ie: sympathetic nerve fibers in Sympathetic Nervous System stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines

86
Q

How does a hormonal stimuli affect the synthesis and release of hormones?

A

release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs

Hypothalamic hormones → stimulate release of anterior pituitary hormones → stimulate target organ hormones

87
Q

What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-target endocrine organ feedback loop?

A

target organ hormones inhibit the release of the anterior pituitary hormones

88
Q

What is another term for anterior pituitary hormones?

A

releasing hormone

89
Q

How does the hypothalamus inhibit hormone secretion from anterior pituitary?

A

hypothalamus releases hypothalamic hormone = inhibitory hormone → inhibits anterior pituitary hormone secretion

90
Q

Differentiate between “free” and “bound” hormones that circulate in the blood stream in terms of their “active” state.

A

Hormones are inactive when they are bound to a substance (ie: in secretory vesicle or carrier protein)

Hormones are active when they are no longer bound to anything

91
Q

What is the difference between genomic and nongenomic?

A

genomic = hormone action directly interacts with or affects DNA

non-genomic = hormone doesn’t interact/touch DNA

92
Q

What are the typical hormones and receptors involved in non-genomic effects of hormones?
Onset of action (slow or fast)?
Resulting affect?

A

protein/polypeptide hormones & cell surface receptors

rapid onset of action

activation/repression of pre-existing cell proteins

93
Q

What are the typical hormones and receptors involved in genomic effects of hormones?
Onset of action (slow or fast)?
Resulting affect?

A

steroid/thyroid hormone & intracellular hormone receptors

slow onset of action

gene expression and new protein synthesis

94
Q

What are the 4 things of the autonomic nervous system that the hypothalamus controls to regulate?

A
  • sexual behavior
  • thirst/hunger
  • body temperature
  • defensive reactions
95
Q

What are the 4 things that the hypothalamus and pituitary glands affect?

A
  • growth
  • development
  • metabolism
  • homeostasis
96
Q

What are the 6 hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland?

A
  • GH = growth hormone
  • TSH = thyroid-stimulating hormone
  • ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone
  • FSH = follicle stimulating hormone
  • LH = luteinizing hormone
  • PRL = prolactin
97
Q

What is adenohypophysis and hypophysis?

A

adenohypophysis = anterior pituitary portion

hypophysis = pituitary gland

98
Q

What is the hypophyseal portal system?

A

blood vessels that link the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary together = allows for transport of hormones from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary

99
Q

What are the 5 cell types that make up the anterior pituitary gland and secrete hormones?

A
  • Corticotrophs
  • Lactotrophs
  • Gonadotrophs
  • Somatotrophs
  • Thyrotrophs
100
Q

What hormones do Corticotrophs secrete?

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
(corticotropin)

101
Q

What hormones do lactotrophs secrete?

A

prolactin

102
Q

What hormones do gonadotrophs secrete?

A

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
luteinizing hormone (LH)

103
Q

What hormones do somatotrophs secrete?

A

human growth hormone (GH)(somatotropin)

104
Q

What hormones do thyrotophs secrete?

A

thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotopin)

105
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus release to stimulate the secretion of somatotropin human growth hormone (GH)?

A

growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)

106
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus release to stimulate the secretion of thyrotropin thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

A

thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

107
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus release to stimulate the secretion of gonadotropins follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)?

A

gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

108
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus release to stimulate the secretion of corticotropin adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) ?

A

corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

109
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus release to inhibit the secretion of somatotropin human growth hormone (GH)?

A

somatostatin = growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

110
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus release to inhibit the secretion of prolactin?

A

Dopamine (prolactin-inhibiting hormone)

111
Q

What are the hormones secreted by the hypothalamus made up of?

A

polypeptides/proteins

112
Q

Which structure of the pituitary gland is glandular tissue and which one is neural tissue?

A

anterior pituitary = adrenohypophysis = glandular tissue = makes hormones

posterior pituitary = hypophysis = neural tissue = releases hormones (has its own blood supply)

113
Q

What is the neurohypophysis?

A

comprised of the posterior pituitary and infundibulum (narrow part of hypophysis)

acts as a storage and release center for hormones made by hypothalamus

114
Q

What hormones does the hypophysis release?

A

oxytocin
ADH (vasopressin)

115
Q

What structure within the hypothalamus is oxytocin produced in?

A

paraventricular nucleus

116
Q

What structure within the hypothalamus is vasopressin (ADH) produced in?

A

supraoptic nucleus

117
Q

Describe the feedback loop for maintaining blood osmolality when it is higher than normal.

A

Trigger = ↑ blood osmolality → hypothalamus releases vasopressin = activates thirst mechanism and renal retention of H2O = ↓ blood osmolality to normal → stops hypothalamic signaling

118
Q

Which hormone secretion stimuli does short-term stress trigger?

A

neural stimuli

119
Q

Which hormone secretion stimuli does prolonged stress trigger?

A

hormonal stimuli

120
Q

How does the hypophysis release hormones from the hypothalamus?

A

Hypothalamus sends neural signals to hypophysis = triggers exocytosis of hormones

121
Q

Differentiate the signals the hypothalamus gives to the adenohypophysis and hyphophysis.

A

Anterior pituitary gland = hypothalamus signals it to start/stop producing hormones

Posterior pituitary = hypothalamus signals it to release hormones via exocytosis

122
Q

If ADH increases water conservation in the kidney, what process does it likely impact?

A

aquaporins

123
Q

Where are gonadotrophs present and what organs do they impact?

A

found in the adenohypophysis and impact sex organs like the ovaries

124
Q

What is the circulatory route in the anterior pituitary to which hormones from the hypothalamus travel through? (3 steps in route)

A

primary capillary plexus → hypophyseal portal vein → secondary capillary plexus

125
Q

What is the metabolic action of growth hormone (GH)?

A

can act on itself or on other factors

126
Q

What cells in the parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

A

chief cells

127
Q

What cells sense the level of [Ca2+] in the bloodstream and what structure do they have that allows them to do this?

A

chief cells have calcium sensing receptors that allows them to determine [Ca2+] in the bloodstream

128
Q

What kind of receptors are calcium sensing receptors (CaSR)?

A

GPCR

129
Q

How does the body decrease levels of Ca2+ in the bloodstream when levels are high?

A

C-cells in thyroid gland secrete calcitonin hormone → suppressies osteoclast activity in the bones = ↑ Ca2+ excreted in urine

130
Q

What is the 25OH-D hormone? Where is it secreted? What is its function?

A

steroid hormone, active form of Vitamin D secreted by the kidneys

affects intestine to ↑ Ca2+ absorption from diet when low [Ca2+] in bloodstream

131
Q

What are the 3 hormones produced by the thyroid gland?

A

calcitonin
T3
T4

132
Q

What are T3 and T4 hormones made up of?

A

iodine-containing amino acids derived from Tyrosine

133
Q

What happens to T3 and T4 hormones when they enter their target cells?

A

T4 deiodinized into T3 → → T3 binds to hormone receptor → increased metabolism in cells

134
Q

How are thyroxine hormones T3 and T4 part of the negative feedback loop?

A

act on thryotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

135
Q

What is target cell specificity?

A

hormones have specific receptors that are only found on certain cells

136
Q

What 2 hormones does the adrenal cortex secrete?

A

glucocorticoids (cortisol) and mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)

137
Q

What are the 3 zones of the adrenal gland?

A

zona glomerulosa → zona fasiculata → zona reticularis

138
Q

What is to note about the blood supply of the adrenal gland?

A

dense blood supply with about 60 arterioles entering EACH adrenal gland

139
Q

Which part of the adrenal gland is glandular tissue and which part is nervous tissue?

A

glandular tissue = cortex

nervous tissue = medulla

140
Q

What are chromaffin cells?

A

cells within the adrenal gland that secrete catecholamines (epinephrine and norephinephrine)

141
Q

Which hormone does the adrenal medulla secretes the most of?

A

epinephrine

142
Q

What are the 2 types of adrenergic receptors? How many subtypes are of each receptor?

A

Alpha adrenergic receptors = 2 subtypes

Beta adrenergic receptors = 3 subtypes

143
Q

What molecule are steroids synthesized from?

A

cholesterol

144
Q

What is the difference between C21, C19 and C18?

A

C21 = progesterone

C19 = androgens (derivative from progesterone, ketone group clipped off)

C18 = estrogen (derivative from androgen, methyl group clipped off)

145
Q

What is the mechanism of action of aldosterone?

A

affects function of sodium efflux pump through gene expression

146
Q

What are the 4 mechanisms does cortisol regulate?

A
  • gluconeogenesis
  • protein mobilization
  • fat mobilization
  • stabilizes lysosomes
147
Q

What is the major function of aldosterone?

A

↑ renal Na+ reabsorption, K+ and H+ secretion

148
Q

What is aldosterone hormone made up of?

A

steroids

149
Q

What is cortisol hormone made up of?

A

steroids

150
Q

What are the 6 hormones released by the hypothalamus?

A
  • TRH = thyrotropin releasing hormone
  • GHRH = growth hormone releasing hormone
  • GHIH - growth hormone inhibiting hormone
  • CRH = corticotropin releasing hormone
  • GnRH = gonadotropin releasing hormone
  • Dopamine (prolactin-inhibiting hormone)
151
Q

What is the function of oxytocin?

A

stimulates milk ejection from breasts and uterine contraction

152
Q

What is the function of luteinizing hormone?

A

stimulates testosterone synthesis, ovulation, corpus luteum formation, estrogen and progesterone synthesis

153
Q

What is the function of follicle-stimulating hormone?

A

causes growth of ovarian follicles and sperm maturation

154
Q

What is the function of prolactin?

A

promotes development of female breasts and milk secretion

155
Q

What is the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

A

stimulates synthesis/secretion of adrenocortical hormones - cortisol, androgens, and aldosterone

156
Q

What is the function of growth hormone (GH)?

A

stimulates protein synthesis and overall growth of most cells and tissues

157
Q

What is the function of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)?

A

causes release of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone

158
Q

What is the function of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)?

A

causes release of adrenocorticotropic hormones

159
Q

What is the function of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)?

A

stimulates secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone and prolactin

PASG 60200 Physiology (4 decks)

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