Unit 2 Exam Flashcards
Erikson’s three stages of development
intimacy versus isolation– forming and maintaining committed relationships
generativity versus stagnation– focusing on improvements for future generations
integrity versus despair– feeling satisfied with life… come to the reality of death
kolbergs three stages of moral development
preconventional– solve dilemma based on self interest and event outcomes
conventional– responses conform to law and order/ or focus on others approval or disapproval
postconventional– highest level… people center responses on value of all life and complex principles
examples of development occurring during adolescence (physical, cognitive, socio-emotional)
physical– puberty
cognitive– moral reasoning increases
socio-emotional– trying to discover ones own identity
examples of development occurring during early adulthood (physical, cognitive, socio-emotional)
physical– peak fitness
cognitive– adults have to navigate life without a parental figure (more freedom)
socio-emotional– finding their sense of identity… deciding what to do for the rest of their life (career)
examples of development occurring during old age/late adulthood (physical, cognitive, socio-emotional)
physical– decline in muscle mass, hearing
cognitive– difficulty with memory tasks
socio-emotional– more concerned with their quality of life and their legacy… caring more for others than themselves
sensation
the sense organs detection of physical stimuli from the world around you and the sending of information about these stimuli to your brain
transduction
the sensory receptors change the stimulus input to neural signals the brain can understand
perception
the processing, organization and interpretation of sensory information in the brain
thalamus role in sensation and perception
neural signals are sent to the thalamus, allowing the brain to process the action potentials as something you can interpret and react accordingly
not with sense of smell!
primary physical stimulus of the five senses
vision– light waves
audition– sound waves
gustation (taste)– chemical molecules combine with saliva on the tongue
olfaction (smell)– odorants pass into the nose and nasal cavity
tactile (touch)– cold or hot tactile stimulation
location of sensation in five senses
vision– rods and cones
audition– pressure waves in the cochlea
gustation– taste receptors (in taste buds)
olfaction– olfactory receptors
tactile– warm, cold, and pressure receptors
location of transduction in five senses
vision– ganglion cells
audition– auditory nerve
gustation–facial nerve
olfaction– olfactory nerve
tactile– cranial and spinal nerves
location of perception in five senses
vision– primary visual cortex
auditory– primary auditory cortex
gustation– primary gustatory cortex
olfaction– primary olfactory cortex
tactile– primary somatosensory cortex
what is learning and how does it differ from experience?
a change in behavior resulting from experience
learning is as a result of some form of new experience of new information, whereas performance is from known info/experience
operant conditioning
a learning process in which an actions consequences determine how likely an action is to be performed in the future
reinforcer
something associated as a reward in response to a stimulus
punishment
an addition or removal of a stimulus that decreases the probability of the behavior being repeated
shaping
reinforcing behaviors that are similar to the desired behavior
chaining
individual steps (tasks) must be completed in order to reach another task… sequential reinforcement
primary reinforcers
things you need to live (food, water, social support)
secondary reinforcers
rewards that are not necessarily supporting ability to live but help to reinforce good behavior (money, treat, good grade)
what does positive mean in terms of positive reinforcement and punishment?
positive means to add a stimulus
reinforcement– increase behavior by adding stimulus… treat
punishment– decreases the behavior by adding a stimulus… speeding ticket
what does negative mean in terms of negative reinforcement and punishment?
negative means to remove a stimulus
reinforcement– remove stimulus to increase behavior… stop shocking a dog
punishment– remove stimulus to decrease behavior… take away driving priveledges
sensory… function, duration, capacity
function– lets perception appear to be unified wholes
duration– up to 1 second
capacity– vast (lots of sensory input)
short-term storage… function, duration, capacity
function– maintains information for immediate use
duration– about 20 seconds… indefinite because working memory can manipulate items
capactiy– about 7 items, plus or minus 2 (increase capacity by using working memory)
long-term storage… function, duration, capacity
function– stores information for access and use at a later time
duration– probably unlimited
capacity– probably unlimited
encoding
processing information so it can be stored
storage
retention of encoded information over time
retrieval
the act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed
what is working memory, and how is it different from short term storage?
working memory– active processing system that allows manipulation of different types of information to keep it available for current use
working stores and manipulates, short-term storage just holds in the mind briefly
what is explicit memory?
requires conscious effort and often can be verbally described
what is implicit memory?
does not require conscious effort and often cannot be verbally described
episodic memory
explicit
personally experienced events… present on your birthday
procedural memory
explicit
facts and knowledge… a tomato is a fruit and not a veggie
classical conditioning… implicit or explicit?
implicit
associating two stimuli elicits a response… associating a pain felt at the dentist with it now being scared to go to the dentist
semantic memory
implicit
motor skills and habits… you can play the piano
what is the difference between context dependent memory and state dependent memory?… examples
context dependent– person in the same context they learned the info, clues from the environment help remember
– learning underwater, remember underwater
state dependent– internal state is the same during encoding and retrieval
– learn drunk, remember only drunk
thinking
a mental manipulation of the knowledge stored in your brain as mental representations
intelligence
the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, solve problems, understand complex ideas, adapt to challenges
schema
mental structures that help you organize information and guide your thoughts and behavior
heuristic
a shortcut used to reduce the amount of thinking needed to make a decision
what is the difference between analogical representations and symbolic representations?… examples
analogical– corresponds to images
-maps
symbolic– abstract and usually consist of words or ideas… no relationship with physical qualities of objects
- hamburger
reasoning… example
determining if a conclusion is valid
ex. using knowledge and apply to a situation… choice of place to eat dinner
decision making… example
a form of thinking in which you select among choices
go out to eat, or stay in and cook something
- one cheaper
- one is easier
problem solving… example
use knowledge to determine how to move from your current state to the goal state (use strategies to overcome obstacles)
what does it mean when a psychometric test is reliable?
the persons results are similar each time they take the test
what does it mean when a psychometric test is valid?
the test measures what it claims to measure
usually if a test is valid it is likely reliable
what is the Dunning-Kruger effect and how does it relate to thinking?
when people with low ability/experience/expertise regarding a certain task or area of knowledge overestimate their knowledge and ability
people think they are smarter than they are
how do crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence differ?
crystallized intelligence– involves knowledge gained through experience (vocab, cultural info) and the ability to use this intelligence to solve problems
— analogous to long-term memory
fluid intelligence– involves information processing… reasoning, drawing analogies, thinking quickly
— analogous to working memory
how can a test be culturally biased? does it threaten reliability or validity?
to perform well on some tests it requires general knowledge of mainstream language and culture… people who don’t know it wont perform well
threatens validity
motivation
energizes, guides, and maintains behavior towards meeting specific goals or needs
self- efficacy
the expectation that your behaviors will lead to success (believe that studying hard will get you a good grade on the exam, leads one to study)
emotion
an immediate, specific, negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts
display rules
learned rules about what emotions should be shown in certain situations
what, according to drive reduction theory, leads one to take a drink of water?
you have a need to satisfy the thirst you feel, so you have drive to go get or take a drink of water
intrinsic motivation
the desire to get value or pleasure from the activity rather than to achieve an external goal
reading a book, going on a walk, listening to music
doing something because it is pleasurable
extrinsic motivation
the desire to perform an activity to achieve an external goal (reward of some form)
studying hard to get a good grade, working hard to get a raise
how does the two factor theory explain our experience of emotion
how a person thinks about and labels bodily responses is the basis for emotions
whatever you believe caused the emotion will determine how you label the emotion
four ways we can regulate our emotions… examples
thought suppression– trying not to feel or respond to unpleasant emotions
example… thinking of something other than the emotion you’re feeling
rumination– thinking about, elaborating on undesired thoughts and feelings
example… journaling
Positive reappraisal– directly altering emotional reactions to events by thinking about them in more neutral terms
example… scared at a movie, tell yourself its fake
humor– finding amusement in a situation
example… laughing about your circumstance
gender roles
information about the social positions and traits expected of people with different genders (traditional)
gender identity
a persons individual understanding of their own gender
primary sex characteristics
physical features directly related to reproduction
secondary sex characteristics
physical features that are not directly related to reproduction but that indicate the differences between sexes
four aspects of biological sex
sex chromosomes– genetic material determines at conception by the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the new zygote
sex glands– organs that release sex hormones and contain the cells used for sexual reproduction
secondary sex characteristics
primary sex characteristics
what does intersex mean and how is it expressed through each of the four aspects?
intersex– also can be called DSD (differences in sexual development) and acknowledges that sometimes one or more aspects of biological sex are non-binary, not male or female
genitals can be male or female presenting
variations can be due to genetics or hormones
XY– male
XX– female
two ways biology influences sexual orientation
inherited trait
higher exposure to androgens in utero is associated with greater same-sex attraction in women
two biological aspects that influence sexual desire
sexual response cycle– pattern of psychological responses consists of four phases
hormones– motivate sexual behavior
two environmental factors that influence desire to engage in sexual activity
cultural differences– the frequency with which people have sex varies by culture
internal thoughts and external stimuli– sexual fantasies, porn
