Unit 2 - Cognition Flashcards
What are the three main stages of memory?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
What are the three types of memory storage in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?
Sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
What is the capacity and duration of sensory memory?
Very brief (less than a second) but holds a large amount of information.
What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?
Explicit (declarative) memory requires conscious recall, while implicit (non-declarative) memory does not.
What are two types of explicit memory?
Semantic memory (facts, knowledge) and episodic memory (personal experiences).
What are two types of implicit memory?
Procedural memory (skills, habits) and classical conditioning.
What is working memory?
A system that actively processes information in short-term memory.
What is chunking?
Grouping information into meaningful units to improve memory.
What is the spacing effect?
Distributed practice leads to better long-term retention than massed practice.
What is the serial position effect?
We remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.
What is the difference between recall and recognition?
Recall requires retrieving information without cues (essay questions), while recognition involves identifying correct information from choices (multiple choice).
What is the encoding specificity principle?
Memory is best retrieved in the same context or state in which it was learned in.
What is state-dependent memory?
We remember information better when in the same physical or emotional state as when we learned it.
What is proactive interference?
When old information interferes with new learning.
What is retroactive interference?
When new information interferes with the recall of old information.
What is the misinformation effect?
When misleading information distorts memory (Loftus’ studies on eyewitness testimony).
What is source amnesia?
Forgetting the origin of a memory leading to false memories.
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to form new memories after brain damage.
What is retrograde amnesia?
The inability to recall past memories before brain damage.
What are the two types of thinking?
Convergent thinking (one correct answer) and divergent thinking (multiple solutions).
What is an algorithm?
A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution.
What is a heuristic?
A mental shortcut used for problem-solving, but it can lead to errors.
What is the availability heuristic?
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.
What is the representative heuristic?
Judging a situation based on how similar it is to a stereotype rather than statistics.
What is confirmation bias?
The tendency to seek out information that supports our beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.
What is the functional fixedness?
The inability to see new uses for an object beyond its typical function?
What is belief perseverance?
Clinging to initial beliefs even after they have been discredited.
What is framing?
The way an issue is presented can influence decisions and judgments.
What is insight?
A sudden realization of a solution to a problem (Aha! moment).
What are the three main components of language?
Phonemes (smallest sound units), morphemes (smallest meaning units), and grammar (rules for communication).
What is the difference between syntax and semantics?
Syntax is the set of rules for word order, while semantics refers to meaning in language.
What is the linguistic relativity hypothesis (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis)?
The idea that language shapes thought and perception.
What is the babbling stage in language development?
Around 4 months, babies make sounds from various languages.
At what age does the one-word stage typically occur?
Around 12 months.
At what age does the two-word (telegraphic) stage occur?
Around 18-24 months.
Who proposed the language acquisition device (LAD) and what does it suggest?
Noam Chomsky; it suggests humans are biologically programmed to learn language.
What is overgeneralization in language learning?
When children apply grammatical rules too broadly (“I goed to the store”).
