Unit 2 - Chapters 5 - 8 - Discussion Questions

Question 1

Describe the situation England faced and the problems it had to address in 1763.

Answer 1

In 1763, England found itself in a precarious situation as a result of the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), known in America as the French and Indian War. Despite achieving a significant victory against France and its allies, England was burdened with a multitude of pressing problems:

1. Massive War Debt: The Seven Years’ War was enormously expensive and left the British government deeply in debt. They needed to find a way to pay off this debt, which led to the implementation of various new taxes, many of which were levied on the American colonies.
2. Managing New Territories: With the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Britain gained new territories in North America, including Canada from France and Florida from Spain. However, these new territories presented administrative challenges and created tensions with both the native inhabitants and with the American colonists.
3. Defending the Frontier: The end of the war did not mean the end of conflicts on the frontier. Native American tribes, led by Ottawa chief Pontiac, rebelled against British control in the Great Lakes region, leading to what became known as Pontiac’s Rebellion. This necessitated further military spending and led to the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains in an attempt to reduce conflict with Native Americans.
4. Taxation of the American Colonies: To help pay off the war debt and cover the costs of administering and defending the North American territories, Britain enacted a series of taxes on the colonies. This began with the Sugar Act in 1764 and the Stamp Act in 1765. These taxes were deeply unpopular with the colonists, leading to protests and cries of “no taxation without representation”.
5. Rising Tensions with the Colonies: The colonists’ unhappiness over new taxes was just one sign of increasing tension between Britain and the American colonies. The American colonists felt their rights as Englishmen were being violated, which over time led to increasing resistance and ultimately the American Revolution.

Thus, England faced a difficult balancing act in 1763: finding ways to pay down its war debt, manage and defend its new territories, and maintain control over the American colonies in the face of growing resistance.

Question 2

List and explain the actions taken by the First and Second Continental Congresses.

Answer 2

The First and Second Continental Congresses were meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies in America, convened to respond to British policies.

First Continental Congress (September 5 to October 26, 1774)

The First Continental Congress convened in response to the Intolerable Acts (also known as the Coercive Acts), which were punitive measures enacted by the British in response to the Boston Tea Party. Its main actions included:

1. Petition to the King: The Congress sent a Petition to the King, essentially a respectful demand for the rights of the colonists. The petition denied Parliament’s right to tax the colonies and called for a repeal of the Intolerable Acts.
2. Declaration and Resolves: The Congress adopted the Declaration and Resolves which stated that the colonists had the right to “life, liberty, and property,” and that they had the right to self-govern.
3. The Continental Association: The Congress established The Continental Association, an agreement to implement a trade boycott with Britain. This was the first step towards unifying the colonies against British rule.
4. Agreement to Reconvene: The delegates agreed to reconvene in May 1775 if their grievances were not addressed adequately.

Second Continental Congress (May 10, 1775, to March 1, 1781)

The Second Continental Congress convened after the battles of Lexington and Concord, marking the beginning of the Revolutionary War. Its main actions included:

1. Olive Branch Petition: Early in its deliberations, the Second Continental Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition to King George III as a final attempt at reconciliation, professing loyalty to the king but not Parliament.
2. Declaration of Independence: On July 4, 1776, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, declaring the colonies’ independence from Great Britain.
3. Continental Army: The Congress authorized the creation of a Continental Army, and appointed George Washington as its commander-in-chief.
4. Articles of Confederation: The Congress drafted the Articles of Confederation in 1777, the first constitution of the United States, though it was not ratified by all the states until 1781.
5. Foreign Alliances: The Congress sought and obtained a critical military alliance with France in 1778.

Through these actions, the Continental Congresses set the stage for a concerted, united rebellion against British rule and led the American colonies through the Revolutionary War to eventual independence.

Question 3

List and explain colonial grievances and complaints as outlined in the Declaration of Independence.

Answer 3

The Declaration of Independence, penned primarily by Thomas Jefferson, lists numerous grievances that the American colonists had against King George III and the British government. These grievances provided the justification for the American colonies to declare themselves independent from Great Britain. Here are several key grievances outlined:

1. He has refused his Assent to Laws: The King was accused of failing to approve and recognize laws that were necessary for the public good.
2. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance: The King had kept colonial governors from passing essential laws, and then refused to pass them himself.
3. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature: The King was accused of withholding approval of laws unless people gave up their right to representation.
4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records: The King was accused of forcing legislative bodies to meet in inconvenient and inappropriate locations, far from their records.
5. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people: The King was accused of dissolving representative houses because they opposed his overreaching authority.
6. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries: The King was accused of manipulating the justice system by controlling judges’ appointments and salaries.
7. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures: The King was accused of maintaining standing armies in the colonies during peacetime without the consent of the colonial legislatures.
8. He has imposed Taxes on us without our Consent: This was a central issue, taxation without representation, as the colonists had no elected representatives in the British Parliament.
9. For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: The King was accused of inhibiting trade between the colonies and the rest of the world.
10. For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: The King was accused of removing established laws and charters and changing colonial governments.
11. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever: This was an accusation of absolute tyranny, claiming the King had given himself the power to legislate over the colonies in all cases.

These, along with other grievances outlined in the Declaration of Independence, provided the colonists’ justification for declaring independence from Britain. They served as the basis for many of the protections and rights later written into the Constitution and Bill of Rights to prevent similar abuses of power.

Question 4

Describe democratic reforms in America after the American Revolution.

Answer 4

Following the American Revolution, there were several significant democratic reforms that took place. Here are some of the most notable:

1. Expanded Suffrage: After the American Revolution, many states relaxed property qualifications for voting and officeholding, though generally the right to vote was still limited to white, property-owning males. Gradually, suffrage expanded further in the 19th century.
2. Abolition of Primogeniture and Entail: These were legal practices carried over from England that had to do with inheritance. Primogeniture meant that the firstborn son inherited all of his father’s estate, and entail meant that land could only be passed down through direct male lines and could not be sold. Both of these practices were abolished after the Revolution, leading to a more democratic distribution of property.
3. State Constitutions: Each state wrote a constitution to define its government. Most of these constitutions included a bill of rights and established a stronger legislature, reflecting a desire to prevent the concentration of power that they associated with monarchy.
4. Creation of the U.S. Constitution: In 1787, the Constitution was written to replace the Articles of Confederation, which had proven to be too weak to effectively govern the nation. The Constitution established a system of government with separation of powers among three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. This was an attempt to balance power and prevent the type of tyranny the colonists had experienced under British rule.
5. Bill of Rights: The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution were added in 1791. These amendments enshrined key civil liberties such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial.
6. Separation of Church and State: Before the Revolution, several colonies had official state churches. After the Revolution, there was a movement towards separating church and state, leading to greater religious freedom.
7. Education and Civic Virtue: There was an emphasis on public education and civic virtue after the Revolution. Many leaders believed that in order for a republic to succeed, its citizens needed to be educated and virtuous.
8. Abolition Movements: The principles of freedom and equality espoused during the Revolution led to increased calls for the abolition of slavery. Some Northern states began to gradually abolish slavery in the years after the Revolution.

All of these reforms contributed to the creation of a more democratic society in America, although it would take many more decades and even centuries to extend these rights and freedoms to all people in the United States.

Question 5

Describe the government as organized under the Articles of Confederation and the reasons it failed.

Answer 5

The Articles of Confederation served as the United States’ first constitution, providing the framework for national government following the nation’s declaration of independence from Great Britain. The Articles were in effect from their adoption in 1781 until 1789 when the current U.S. Constitution was ratified.

Government Under the Articles of Confederation:

1. Unicameral Legislature: The Articles established a unicameral (one-house) Congress, where each state, regardless of size or population, had one vote.
2. No Executive or Judicial Branches: The Articles did not establish separate executive or judicial branches of government. Executive powers were vested in committees of Congress, and there was no national court system to interpret laws or adjudicate disputes between states.
3. State Sovereignty: Under the Articles, the states retained their sovereignty, freedom, and independence. The national government was given limited powers, including the power to declare war, make treaties, and maintain an army and navy.
4. Consensus Required: Key decisions, such as amendments to the Articles, required the agreement of all thirteen states. Ordinary legislation required the approval of at least nine of the thirteen states.

Reasons for Failure of the Articles of Confederation:

1. Lack of Central Authority: The central government lacked the power to enforce laws, collect taxes, or regulate commerce. This left it unable to pay debts from the Revolutionary War and unable to ensure domestic tranquility.
2. Economic Disorganization: Without the power to regulate commerce, states often imposed tariffs on goods from other states, creating economic disarray. The national government could not stabilize the economy or provide for a common currency.
3. Inability to Raise an Army: The national government could not compel states to contribute troops for defense. This made it difficult to protect the nation’s interests and maintain order.
4. Unanimous Consent for Amendments: The requirement for all states to agree to amend the Articles made it practically impossible to correct its flaws.
5. Disputes Among States: Without a national court system, disputes between states could not be effectively adjudicated, leading to inter-state tensions.

These weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation became apparent during events such as Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787), where the federal government struggled to quell an uprising due to its inability to quickly raise a federal army. This and other incidents drove the push for a stronger central government, leading to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and the drafting of the U.S. Constitution.

Question 6

List the freedoms and legal protections guaranteed to Americans in the Bill of Rights.

Answer 6

The Bill of Rights is the name for the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed to assuage the fears of Anti-Federalists who had opposed Constitutional ratification, these amendments guarantee a number of personal freedoms, limit the government’s power in judicial and other proceedings, and reserve some powers to the states and the public.

1. First Amendment: Protects the rights of freedom of religion (prohibiting Congress from establishing a religion and protecting the right to free exercise of religion), speech, press, assembly, and petition.
2. Second Amendment: Protects the right to keep and bear arms.
3. Third Amendment: Prohibits the quartering of soldiers in homes in peacetime without the owner’s consent, and in war, except as prescribed by law.
4. Fourth Amendment: Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures and sets out requirements for search warrants based on probable cause.
5. Fifth Amendment: Sets out rules for indictment by grand jury and eminent domain, protects the right to due process, and prohibits self-incrimination and double jeopardy.
6. Sixth Amendment: Protects the right to a fair and speedy public trial by jury, including the rights to be informed of the accusations, to confront the accuser, to obtain witnesses, and to retain counsel.
7. Seventh Amendment: Provides for the right to a jury trial in certain civil cases, according to common law.
8. Eighth Amendment: Prohibits excessive fines and excessive bail, as well as cruel and unusual punishment.
9. Ninth Amendment: Asserts that rights not listed in the Constitution are still protected.
10. Tenth Amendment: States that the federal government possesses only those powers delegated, or enumerated, to it through the Constitution. All remaining powers are reserved for the states or the people.

These amendments, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, establish the fundamental rights and protections that are central to American democracy and have been pivotal in numerous landmark legal decisions since their adoption.

Question 7

Describe the rise of Republicans and Federalists and the political positions of each.

Answer 7

The political parties of Federalists and Democratic-Republicans emerged in the United States during the late 18th century amid debates about the size, scope, and nature of the federal government.

Federalists: This party, which included figures like Alexander Hamilton and John Adams, supported a strong central government. They believed that the federal government should have broad powers to stimulate the economy and shape national policy. Federalists were instrumental in the creation of the Constitution, arguing for a strong executive branch, a powerful Congress, and the flexibility of the Constitution’s “necessary and proper” or “elastic” clause. Federalists also tended to support closer ties with Britain (over France) in terms of international trade and diplomacy.

Democratic-Republicans (Republicans): Also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans, they were led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. They advocated for states’ rights and a limited federal government. They feared that a strong central government would lead to tyranny and were highly critical of the perceived elitism of the Federalist party. They preferred an agrarian economy and were more inclined towards France, inspired by the French Revolution’s republican ideals.

The conflict between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans constituted the first party system in American politics. Their debates over the interpretation of the Constitution — whether it should be “strict” (Democratic-Republicans) or “loose” (Federalists) — are foundational to American political discourse, and elements of these early disputes can still be seen in modern debates between Democrats and Republicans over the role of government in society.

Question 8

Describe the actions taken by President Jefferson to reverse previous Federalist policies.

Answer 8

Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States (1801–1809), and a leading figure in the Democratic-Republican Party, took several significant steps to reverse previous Federalist policies. His actions largely focused on reducing the size and reach of the federal government and advocating for states’ rights, in contrast to the Federalists’ preference for a strong centralized government. Here are some of the major actions taken by Jefferson:

1. Reduced Government Spending and Debt: Jefferson, along with his Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, worked to reduce federal spending and government debt. They eliminated some federal offices, cut back the military, and reduced the national debt, a key component of Federalist economic policy.
2. Repealed the Whiskey Tax: The Whiskey Tax was implemented by the Federalist administration under President George Washington, leading to the Whiskey Rebellion. Jefferson repealed this unpopular tax as part of his policy to reduce federal influence.
3. Louisiana Purchase: In contrast to the Federalist preference for consolidating power in the North Atlantic states, Jefferson expanded the country’s territory with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. This doubled the size of the U.S. and was somewhat contradictory to Jefferson’s strict constructionist views, as the Constitution did not specifically allow for such a purchase. However, he justified it as falling under the government’s treaty-making powers.
4. Embargo Act of 1807: This was an attempt to assert American neutrality and avoid war during the ongoing conflict between Britain and France, which were seizing American ships. It prohibited American ships from trading in all foreign ports. The Act was largely a failure and was extremely unpopular, leading to economic hardship.
5. Abolished International Slave Trade: In 1808, Jefferson upheld a provision in the Constitution that allowed for the abolition of the international slave trade, reflecting his complex and often contradictory attitudes towards slavery.
6. Decreased the Size of the Military: Reflecting his belief in limited government, Jefferson cut military expenditures, specifically reducing the size of the Navy built up under the Adams administration.
7. Marbury v. Madison: While this was a Supreme Court decision rather than a direct action of Jefferson’s, it occurred early in his presidency and shaped the nature of American government, establishing the principle of judicial review. Jefferson’s refusal to deliver the commissions for justices of the peace led to the case, reflecting his aim to curtail Federalist influence in the judiciary.

Remember that while Jefferson worked to undo Federalist policies, he also found himself maintaining or adapting others, reflecting the complex realities of governance.