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Psychology 2024 > Unit 2 (but did 1st) Exam > Flashcards

Unit 2 (but did 1st) Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Attitudes

A

A learned evaluation (positive or negative) of a person, object or idea.

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2
Q

Tri-Component Model

A

The tri-component model is the most widely used to explain an attitude. It has three components Affective, Behavioural and Cognitive.

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3
Q

Affective Component

A

Refers to emotional reactions or feelings an
individual has towards an object, person, group, event or issue. Eg. I am happy, frustrated, angry.

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4
Q

Behavioural Component

A

Refers to the way an attitude is expressed through our actions (or intended actions if an opportunity presents itself) Eg. Running to keep fit is the behavioural component that reflects your attitude towards fitness.

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5
Q

Cognitive Component

A

Refers to what a person thinks about an object, person, group, event or issue, they are linked to what we know about the world and developed through experience. Eg. I hate bunnies.

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6
Q

Limitations of the Tri-Component Model

A

It does not indicate the strength of an attitude.

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7
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

Unpleasant feelings of psychological tension are caused by two or more components clashing.

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8
Q

Internal Attributions

A

This refers to factors within the
person that shape their behaviour. Eg. Personality, Ability, Motivation and Effort

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9
Q

External Attributions

A

This refers to environmental factors that are external to the individual. Eg. Their location or the people around them.

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10
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

Where we overestimate the role of
internal factors and underestimate the role of external factors.

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11
Q

Social Cognition

A

The way we process, retain and apply information.

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12
Q

Stereotypes

A

They are oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular group.

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13
Q

Prejudice

A

Negative thoughts and feelings towards individuals due to their membership in a particular group. It is the cognitive and affective components of the attitude.

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14
Q

Reducing prejudice: Inter-group contact

A

Proposes that prejudice can be reduced by spending meaningful time together with the following conditions; Sustained contact, Superordinate Goals, Mutual Interdependence and Equality of Status.

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15
Q

Reducing prejudice: Sustained contact

A

Prolonged and cooperative interaction between two groups.

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16
Q

Reducing prejudice: Superordinate goals

A

The ultimate goal/s that cannot be achieved alone or without the other person or group.

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17
Q

Reducing prejudice: Mutual Interdependence

A

When two groups must depend somehow on one another to meet a side goal.
(not the superordinate goal)

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18
Q

Reducing prejudice: Equality of Status

A

Groups must be equal, with neither group having more or less status/power than the other.

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19
Q

Robbers’ Cave

A
  • Muzafer Sherif.
  • The aim was to investigate how conflicts develop between groups and how it can be reduced.
  • That inter-group contact reduces prejudice and discrimination.
  • It showed how conflict can arise through competition and how inter-group contact can reduce said conflict.
  • Informed consent wasnt given because the participants couldnt know about the experiment and the boys wernt protected from physical harm.
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20
Q

Discrimination

A

The action of being prejudiced or treating others unfairly based on the negative attitudes held about that person or group.
It is the behavioural component of the attitude.
Eg. Sexism, ageism, racism

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21
Q

Group

A

Two or more people who interact with and influence each other for an extended period of time and who share a common goal.

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22
Q

Status

A

A person’s position in the hierarchy of a group.

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23
Q

Power

A

The amount of influence that one person can exert over another.

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24
Q

Reward Power

A

The ability to provide a desired response. Eg. a teacher can allow students to leave early.

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25
Q

Coercive Power

A

The ability to provide an unpleasant response. Eg. a teacher can give students detentions.

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26
Q

Legitimate Power

A

Power is given by a higher authority and may be due to a role or position they have. Eg. A Police officer or a coach of a sports team.

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27
Q

Expert Power

A

Power is due to skills and depth of knowledge. Eg. A doctor or a motor mechanic

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28
Q

Referent Power

A

Power from others’ desire to relate to the person. Eg. Admired sports star or a good friend.

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29
Q

Individualist Cultures

A

Cultures that value individual interests over those of the group. They encourage independence and personal identity. Eg. Australia, UK, USA

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30
Q

Collectivist Cultures

A

Cultures that value group needs or interests over those of individuals. They prioritise loyalty to the group.
Eg. China

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31
Q

Stanford Prison Experiment

A
  • Phillip Zimbardo
  • The aim was to examine the effects of status and power in a prison enviroment.
  • The Guards became abusive and authoritarian whilt the Priosners became submissive and emotionally distressed.
  • It showed how quickly people conform to their social roes even if it goes against their morals.
  • Participants didn’t have informed consent, they were harmed and their were no debreifings.
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32
Q

Conformity

A

The tendency to adjust one’s behaviour as a result of real or implied pressure from others.
It is affected by; Group Size, Deindividualisation, Unanimity, Informational Influence, Normative Influence, Public Conformity, and Private Conformity.

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33
Q

Conformity Line Experiment

A
  • Solomon Asch
  • The aim was to examine the extent to which social pressure could cause someone to be wrong.
  • 74% conformed at least once
  • In the prescsen of a group people are more likley to confrom.
  • Asch used deception and the participants were harmed psychologically.
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34
Q

Obedience

A

Changing behaviour in response to direct commands from an authority figure.

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35
Q

Obedience Zappy Experiment

A
  • Stanley Milgram
  • To see how far obeidieance would go
  • 65% went all the way to 450V
  • People obey to be liked or out of fear.
  • Deception and lack of withdrawal rights
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36
Q

Anti-Confomity

A

This is a deliberate refusal to comply with social norms as demonstrated by ideas, beliefs or judgements that challenge these social norms. Behaviour considered anti-conformist to one group can be seen as conformist to another.

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37
Q

Independence

A

This occurs when an individual is aware of how the group expects them to behave or respond, but their decision-making is not swayed in any way by the expectations of the group.

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38
Q

Sensation

A

An automatic physical process that happens in the sense organs. It is the same for everyone.
Three stages: (Remember The Titans) Reception, Transduction and Transmission.

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39
Q

Reception

A

When the stimulus is detected by sensory receptor cells located in our sense organs.

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40
Q

Transduction

A

Where sensory receptors convert stimulus energy into electrochemical energy.

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41
Q

Transmission

A

Where electrochemical impulses are sent along the neural pathways to the brain.

42
Q

Perception

A

A psychological process that gives meaning to the stimuli detected by sense organs. 3 Stages; (SO I see) Selection, Organisation and Interpretation

43
Q

Selection

A

Feature detector cells filter the impulses by choosing some for further processing and ignoring others.

44
Q

Organisation

A

Refers to the reassembling of features of sensory stimuli to form a whole or pattern that can be given meaning.

45
Q

Interpretation

A

Where the brain gives meaning to stimuli so we understand what they represent about the world.

46
Q

Bottom-Up Processing

A

The processing of sensory information begins with the small details to form the big picture.

47
Q

Top-Down Processing

A

The process of applying prior knowledge and expectations to sensory information.

48
Q

Binocular Cues

A

Depth cues that rely on information from both eyes.
Retinal Disparity and Convergence.

49
Q

Retinal Disparity

A

Binocular depth cues are created by small differences between the retinal images in each eye.

50
Q

Convergence

A

Binocular depth cue involves the brain detecting the movement in the muscles surrounding the eyes.

51
Q

Monocular Depth Cues

A

Cues that rely on information from only one eye.
Accommodation and Pictorial Depth cues.

52
Q

Accommodation

A

Monocular depth cues involve the lens stretching when focusing on distant objects and bulges when focusing on close objects.

53
Q

Pictorial Depth Cues

A

Monocular Cues present in 2D images that allow the brain to see it in 3D.
Linear perspective, Relative size, Interposition, Texture gradient and Height in the visual field.

54
Q

Pictorial Cue 1: Linear Perspective

A

Where the apparent convergence of parallel lines creates the illusion of increasing distance.
The (___) at X and Y form parallel lines. They appear to be converging towards Z.
Therefore, we perceive X and Y to be closer than Z.

55
Q

Pictorial Cue 2: Relative Size

A

Where the smaller retinal image is perceived as being further away.
The (___) at point X casts a larger retinal image than the
(___) at point Y. Therefore, we perceive the (___) at point X
to be closer than the (___) at point Y.

56
Q

Pictorial Cue 3: Interposition

A

Where one object partially blocks another and is perceived as being in front of the other.
(___) at X is blocking (___) at Y. Therefore, we perceive (___) at X to be in front of, and
closer than, (___) at Y.

57
Q

Pictorial Cue 4: Texture Gradient

A

Where features become smaller and less detailed the more distant an object becomes.
(___) at X have highly detailed
surface features compared to (___) at Y. Therefore, we perceive (___) at X to be closer than (___)at Y.

58
Q

Pictorial Cue 5: Height in the Visual Field:

A

Where objects located closer to the horizon appear further away.
(___) at X is closer to the horizon than (___) at Y. Therefore, we
perceive (___) at X to be further away than (___) at Y.

59
Q

Visual Constancies

A

Tendency to perceive the visual stimulus as remaining constant. Size, Shape and Orientation Constancy.

60
Q

Size Constancy

A

Perceived size remains the same, despite changes in retinal image.

61
Q

Shape Constancy

A

The perceived shape remains the same, despite changes in the retinal image.

62
Q

Orientation Constancy

A

Perceived orientation remains the same despite changes in the retinal image.

63
Q

Gestalt Principles:

A

Explains how we interpret visual information by grouping elements to see a whole.
Figure ground, Closure, Similarity and Proximity

64
Q

Gestalt Principle 1: Figure Ground

A

The tendency to perceive the figure as more relevant.
The (figure) in the foreground of the picture is seen as significantly more prominent than the (ground). We therefore separate the figure of (figure) from the (ground) which surrounds it and perceive the (figure) as more significant.

65
Q

Gestalt Principle 2: Closure

A

Tendency to perceptually complete an incomplete object.
When we look at the (incomplete object), we see a distinct space between the (say what there are spaces between). As a result, we mentally close
the gaps to perceive it as (the object).

66
Q

Gestalt Principle 3: Similarity

A

Viewer’s tendency to perceive stimuli that have similar visual features as a group.
When we look at the collection of (similar items), we recognize that they are alike in shape and form. As such, we mentally group them together and perceive them to be (say what we see them as).

67
Q

Gestalt Principle 4: Proximity

A

Where stimuli that are close together are perceived as belonging to one unit.
When we look at the (say what is close together), we recognize that they are close to one another. As such, we mentally group them together and perceive them to be (say how we see them).

68
Q

Context

A

Refers to information that surrounds a stimulus that influences the perception.

69
Q

Motivation

A

A person’s desires can influence perception.

70
Q

Past Experience

A

Past experiences can influence perception.

71
Q

Memory

A

An individuals memories can influence perception.

72
Q

Perpetual Set

A
73
Q

Cultural Influence on Vision

A

Cultural upbringing can cause differences in perception

74
Q

Visual Illusions

A

Consistent perceptual errors in the interpretation of a visual stimulus

75
Q

Writing a Hypothesis

A

It was hypothesised that (participants) who were (IV) were more likely to (DV) than (participants) who were (opposite IV).

76
Q

Writing an Aim

A

To investigate the effect of (IV) on (DV).

77
Q

Writing a conclusion

A

The results suggest that (IV) has a (describe impact) on (DV).

78
Q

Independent Variable

A

What the experimenter changes.

79
Q

Dependent Variable

A

What changes due to the IV

80
Q

Extraneous Variable

A

A variable that may affect the results.

81
Q

Confounding Variable

A

A variable that has affected the results.

82
Q

Population Vs Sample

A

A population is a complete set of people with a specialized set of characteristics, and a sample is a subset of the population.

83
Q

Sampling Methods

A

Convenience, Random and Stratified.

84
Q

Convenience

A

Convenience sampling involves using respondents who are “convenient” to the researcher.

85
Q

Random

A

Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has an equal probability of being chosen.

86
Q

Stratified

A

Stratified sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a population into smaller subgroups known as strata.

87
Q

Internal Validity

A

Internal validity is a measure of how well a study is conducted and how accurately its results reflect the studied group.

88
Q

External Validity

A

External validity relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world.

89
Q

Repeatability Vs Reproducibility

A

Repeatability means having one result from an experiment, you can try the same experiment again, with the same setup, and produce/get that exact same result. Reproducibility is a measure if the same result can be attained by a different team, using the same artifacts.

90
Q

Within Groups Design

A

Pros: increased statistical power, control for individual differences, and the potential for reduced error variance.
Cons: the potential for order effects, carryover effects, and practice effects.

91
Q

Between Groups Design

A

Pros: shorter study duration, prevents carryover effects, and reduces the risks of internal validity.
Cons: Individual Differences

92
Q

Ethical Concepts

A

Beneficence, Integrity, Justice, Non-malevolence and Respect

93
Q

Beneficence

A

The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising risks and harms

94
Q

Integrity

A

The commitment to searching for the knowledge, understanding and the honest reporting of all sources of info and results.

95
Q

Justice

A

Fair consideration of competing claims, no unfair burden on a particular group, and fair access to benefits of an action.

96
Q

Non-Malevolence

A

The avoidance of causing harm.

97
Q

Respect

A

The consideration of all living things.

98
Q

Ethical Guidelines

A

Confidentiality, Debriefing, Informed consent, Deception, Voluntary participation, Withdrawal Rights and No harm principle.

99
Q

Mean

A

The average.

100
Q

Median

A

Middle point in a data set.

101
Q

Mode

A

Psychology 2024 (7 decks)

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