Unit 2 (but did 1st) Exam Flashcards
Attitudes
A learned evaluation (positive or negative) of a person, object or idea.
Tri-Component Model
The tri-component model is the most widely used to explain an attitude. It has three components Affective, Behavioural and Cognitive.
Affective Component
Refers to emotional reactions or feelings an
individual has towards an object, person, group, event or issue. Eg. I am happy, frustrated, angry.
Behavioural Component
Refers to the way an attitude is expressed through our actions (or intended actions if an opportunity presents itself) Eg. Running to keep fit is the behavioural component that reflects your attitude towards fitness.
Cognitive Component
Refers to what a person thinks about an object, person, group, event or issue, they are linked to what we know about the world and developed through experience. Eg. I hate bunnies.
Limitations of the Tri-Component Model
It does not indicate the strength of an attitude.
Cognitive Dissonance
Unpleasant feelings of psychological tension are caused by two or more components clashing.
Internal Attributions
This refers to factors within the
person that shape their behaviour. Eg. Personality, Ability, Motivation and Effort
External Attributions
This refers to environmental factors that are external to the individual. Eg. Their location or the people around them.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Where we overestimate the role of
internal factors and underestimate the role of external factors.
Social Cognition
The way we process, retain and apply information.
Stereotypes
They are oversimplified images of people who belong to a particular group.
Prejudice
Negative thoughts and feelings towards individuals due to their membership in a particular group. It is the cognitive and affective components of the attitude.
Reducing prejudice: Inter-group contact
Proposes that prejudice can be reduced by spending meaningful time together with the following conditions; Sustained contact, Superordinate Goals, Mutual Interdependence and Equality of Status.
Reducing prejudice: Sustained contact
Prolonged and cooperative interaction between two groups.
Reducing prejudice: Superordinate goals
The ultimate goal/s that cannot be achieved alone or without the other person or group.
Reducing prejudice: Mutual Interdependence
When two groups must depend somehow on one another to meet a side goal.
(not the superordinate goal)
Reducing prejudice: Equality of Status
Groups must be equal, with neither group having more or less status/power than the other.
Robbers’ Cave
- Muzafer Sherif.
- The aim was to investigate how conflicts develop between groups and how it can be reduced.
- That inter-group contact reduces prejudice and discrimination.
- It showed how conflict can arise through competition and how inter-group contact can reduce said conflict.
- Informed consent wasnt given because the participants couldnt know about the experiment and the boys wernt protected from physical harm.
Discrimination
The action of being prejudiced or treating others unfairly based on the negative attitudes held about that person or group.
It is the behavioural component of the attitude.
Eg. Sexism, ageism, racism
Group
Two or more people who interact with and influence each other for an extended period of time and who share a common goal.
Status
A person’s position in the hierarchy of a group.
Power
The amount of influence that one person can exert over another.
Reward Power
The ability to provide a desired response. Eg. a teacher can allow students to leave early.
Coercive Power
The ability to provide an unpleasant response. Eg. a teacher can give students detentions.
Legitimate Power
Power is given by a higher authority and may be due to a role or position they have. Eg. A Police officer or a coach of a sports team.
Expert Power
Power is due to skills and depth of knowledge. Eg. A doctor or a motor mechanic
Referent Power
Power from others’ desire to relate to the person. Eg. Admired sports star or a good friend.
Individualist Cultures
Cultures that value individual interests over those of the group. They encourage independence and personal identity. Eg. Australia, UK, USA
Collectivist Cultures
Cultures that value group needs or interests over those of individuals. They prioritise loyalty to the group.
Eg. China
Stanford Prison Experiment
- Phillip Zimbardo
- The aim was to examine the effects of status and power in a prison enviroment.
- The Guards became abusive and authoritarian whilt the Priosners became submissive and emotionally distressed.
- It showed how quickly people conform to their social roes even if it goes against their morals.
- Participants didn’t have informed consent, they were harmed and their were no debreifings.
Conformity
The tendency to adjust one’s behaviour as a result of real or implied pressure from others.
It is affected by; Group Size, Deindividualisation, Unanimity, Informational Influence, Normative Influence, Public Conformity, and Private Conformity.
Conformity Line Experiment
- Solomon Asch
- The aim was to examine the extent to which social pressure could cause someone to be wrong.
- 74% conformed at least once
- In the prescsen of a group people are more likley to confrom.
- Asch used deception and the participants were harmed psychologically.
Obedience
Changing behaviour in response to direct commands from an authority figure.
Obedience Zappy Experiment
- Stanley Milgram
- To see how far obeidieance would go
- 65% went all the way to 450V
- People obey to be liked or out of fear.
- Deception and lack of withdrawal rights
Anti-Confomity
This is a deliberate refusal to comply with social norms as demonstrated by ideas, beliefs or judgements that challenge these social norms. Behaviour considered anti-conformist to one group can be seen as conformist to another.
Independence
This occurs when an individual is aware of how the group expects them to behave or respond, but their decision-making is not swayed in any way by the expectations of the group.
Sensation
An automatic physical process that happens in the sense organs. It is the same for everyone.
Three stages: (Remember The Titans) Reception, Transduction and Transmission.
Reception
When the stimulus is detected by sensory receptor cells located in our sense organs.
Transduction
Where sensory receptors convert stimulus energy into electrochemical energy.
Transmission
Where electrochemical impulses are sent along the neural pathways to the brain.
Perception
A psychological process that gives meaning to the stimuli detected by sense organs. 3 Stages; (SO I see) Selection, Organisation and Interpretation
Selection
Feature detector cells filter the impulses by choosing some for further processing and ignoring others.
Organisation
Refers to the reassembling of features of sensory stimuli to form a whole or pattern that can be given meaning.
Interpretation
Where the brain gives meaning to stimuli so we understand what they represent about the world.
Bottom-Up Processing
The processing of sensory information begins with the small details to form the big picture.
Top-Down Processing
The process of applying prior knowledge and expectations to sensory information.
Binocular Cues
Depth cues that rely on information from both eyes.
Retinal Disparity and Convergence.
Retinal Disparity
Binocular depth cues are created by small differences between the retinal images in each eye.
Convergence
Binocular depth cue involves the brain detecting the movement in the muscles surrounding the eyes.
Monocular Depth Cues
Cues that rely on information from only one eye.
Accommodation and Pictorial Depth cues.
Accommodation
Monocular depth cues involve the lens stretching when focusing on distant objects and bulges when focusing on close objects.
Pictorial Depth Cues
Monocular Cues present in 2D images that allow the brain to see it in 3D.
Linear perspective, Relative size, Interposition, Texture gradient and Height in the visual field.
Pictorial Cue 1: Linear Perspective
Where the apparent convergence of parallel lines creates the illusion of increasing distance.
The (___) at X and Y form parallel lines. They appear to be converging towards Z.
Therefore, we perceive X and Y to be closer than Z.
Pictorial Cue 2: Relative Size
Where the smaller retinal image is perceived as being further away.
The (___) at point X casts a larger retinal image than the
(___) at point Y. Therefore, we perceive the (___) at point X
to be closer than the (___) at point Y.
Pictorial Cue 3: Interposition
Where one object partially blocks another and is perceived as being in front of the other.
(___) at X is blocking (___) at Y. Therefore, we perceive (___) at X to be in front of, and
closer than, (___) at Y.
Pictorial Cue 4: Texture Gradient
Where features become smaller and less detailed the more distant an object becomes.
(___) at X have highly detailed
surface features compared to (___) at Y. Therefore, we perceive (___) at X to be closer than (___)at Y.
Pictorial Cue 5: Height in the Visual Field:
Where objects located closer to the horizon appear further away.
(___) at X is closer to the horizon than (___) at Y. Therefore, we
perceive (___) at X to be further away than (___) at Y.
Visual Constancies
Tendency to perceive the visual stimulus as remaining constant. Size, Shape and Orientation Constancy.
Size Constancy
Perceived size remains the same, despite changes in retinal image.
Shape Constancy
The perceived shape remains the same, despite changes in the retinal image.
Orientation Constancy
Perceived orientation remains the same despite changes in the retinal image.
Gestalt Principles:
Explains how we interpret visual information by grouping elements to see a whole.
Figure ground, Closure, Similarity and Proximity
Gestalt Principle 1: Figure Ground
The tendency to perceive the figure as more relevant.
The (figure) in the foreground of the picture is seen as significantly more prominent than the (ground). We therefore separate the figure of (figure) from the (ground) which surrounds it and perceive the (figure) as more significant.
Gestalt Principle 2: Closure
Tendency to perceptually complete an incomplete object.
When we look at the (incomplete object), we see a distinct space between the (say what there are spaces between). As a result, we mentally close
the gaps to perceive it as (the object).
Gestalt Principle 3: Similarity
Viewer’s tendency to perceive stimuli that have similar visual features as a group.
When we look at the collection of (similar items), we recognize that they are alike in shape and form. As such, we mentally group them together and perceive them to be (say what we see them as).
Gestalt Principle 4: Proximity
Where stimuli that are close together are perceived as belonging to one unit.
When we look at the (say what is close together), we recognize that they are close to one another. As such, we mentally group them together and perceive them to be (say how we see them).
Context
Refers to information that surrounds a stimulus that influences the perception.
Motivation
A person’s desires can influence perception.
Past Experience
Past experiences can influence perception.
Memory
An individuals memories can influence perception.
Perpetual Set
Cultural Influence on Vision
Cultural upbringing can cause differences in perception
Visual Illusions
Consistent perceptual errors in the interpretation of a visual stimulus
Writing a Hypothesis
It was hypothesised that (participants) who were (IV) were more likely to (DV) than (participants) who were (opposite IV).
Writing an Aim
To investigate the effect of (IV) on (DV).
Writing a conclusion
The results suggest that (IV) has a (describe impact) on (DV).
Independent Variable
What the experimenter changes.
Dependent Variable
What changes due to the IV
Extraneous Variable
A variable that may affect the results.
Confounding Variable
A variable that has affected the results.
Population Vs Sample
A population is a complete set of people with a specialized set of characteristics, and a sample is a subset of the population.
Sampling Methods
Convenience, Random and Stratified.
Convenience
Convenience sampling involves using respondents who are “convenient” to the researcher.
Random
Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each sample has an equal probability of being chosen.
Stratified
Stratified sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a population into smaller subgroups known as strata.
Internal Validity
Internal validity is a measure of how well a study is conducted and how accurately its results reflect the studied group.
External Validity
External validity relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world.
Repeatability Vs Reproducibility
Repeatability means having one result from an experiment, you can try the same experiment again, with the same setup, and produce/get that exact same result. Reproducibility is a measure if the same result can be attained by a different team, using the same artifacts.
Within Groups Design
Pros: increased statistical power, control for individual differences, and the potential for reduced error variance.
Cons: the potential for order effects, carryover effects, and practice effects.
Between Groups Design
Pros: shorter study duration, prevents carryover effects, and reduces the risks of internal validity.
Cons: Individual Differences
Ethical Concepts
Beneficence, Integrity, Justice, Non-malevolence and Respect
Beneficence
The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising risks and harms
Integrity
The commitment to searching for the knowledge, understanding and the honest reporting of all sources of info and results.
Justice
Fair consideration of competing claims, no unfair burden on a particular group, and fair access to benefits of an action.
Non-Malevolence
The avoidance of causing harm.
Respect
The consideration of all living things.
Ethical Guidelines
Confidentiality, Debriefing, Informed consent, Deception, Voluntary participation, Withdrawal Rights and No harm principle.
Mean
The average.
Median
Middle point in a data set.
Mode
