unit 2-Biological Psychology-stress Flashcards
Stressors
things that are a source of stress or cause stress
Stress
The lack of balance between the perceived demands of a situation and the perceived ability to cope with these demands
‘Fight or flight’
When the body is psychologically aroused by stress hormones to prepare the body to fight or run for survival
3 components in the body which respond to acute stress (the sympathomedullary pathway)
Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
Sympathetic adrenal medullary system (SAM)
Adrenal medulla
AO1: Explanation of the sympathomedullary pathway
- acute stressor
- SNS (sympathetic nervous system)
- neurons
- neurotransmitter noradrenaline
- when the body is exposed to an acute stressor SNS and SAM are activated
- neutrons from the SNS travel to almost every organ
- neurotransmitter noradrenaline is realised to activate the organs
- responses include increased heart rate,blood pressure and pupil size
AO1:Explanation of sympathomedullary pathway
- SAM
- adrenaline
- bloodstream
- adrenal glands
- adrenal medullar
- fight or flight response
- Simultaneously SAM stimulates the release of the hormone adrenaline into blood stream from the adrenal glands in the adrenal medulla
- hormone prepares body for flight or fight response by boosting the supply of oxygen to the brain and glucose to the muscles
- suppresses non-emergency processes (digestion)
AO1: The pituitary adrenal system(explanation until cortisol)
- response to chronic stressor
- hypothalamus
- corticotrophin-releasing factor(chemical messenger)
- pituitary gland
- adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- adrenal cortex
- cortisol (stress-related hormones)
- long-lasting or continuous stressors alert the hypothalamus in the brain
- stimulates the release of corticotrophin-releasing factor into bloodstream
- stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone
- travels in the blood stream to the adrenal cortex
- triggering the release of stress-related hormones (cortisol)
AO1: The pituitary adrenal system (explanation after cortisol)
- gives constant energy to deal with stressors and capability to tolerate more pain that usual
- reduced immune system performances
- if cortisol levels rise above a certain level the receptors in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland will reduce CRF and ACTH so brings cortisol levels back to normal
The immune system Paragraph 1 -cells -bloodstream -thymus -bone marrow -antigen -bacteria and viruses -White blood cells ( leukocyte)
- immune system has billions of cells
- travelling through the blood stream
- produced In the thymus and blood stream
- move in and out of tissues and organs defending the body against antigens e.g viruses and bacteria
- major immune system= white blood cells
- leukocyte
AO1: The immune system and stress related illness
P2
-Antigens
-immunosuppression
- when the body is stressed the immune systems ability to fight off antigens is reduced
- risk of infections is more likely
- stress doesn’t cause infections
- stress increases the body’s vulnerability to infections
- suppresses the immune function known as immunosuppression
AO1:The immune system and stress related illness
p3
-cortisol
- the production of stress related hormones like cortisol doesn’t harm the immune system
- if produced continuously it interferes with the production of antibodies
- leading to immunosuppression
AO2: the immune system and stress-related illness
P1
-supported by Cohen et al
- found that participants with high stress rating were more likely 82% to become infected with the cold virus and develop symptoms
- compared to those who had low stress ratings
- suggests that stress reduces the effective working of the immune system making people more vulnerable to the risk of illness
AO2: the immune system and stress-related illness
p3
-Supported by marucha et al
-found that cuts in the mouth of dental students healed 40% slower during exam time(high stress)
Than during summer vacation (low stress
-suggests that stress reduces the ability of the immune system, to repair wounds>increasing the risk of infection
AO3: The immune system and stress-related illness P3 -however -Evans et al -public presentations -increased levels of sigA
- most research evidence that suggests stress damages the immune system relates to chronic stress
- Evans et al found that the short-term stress of giving public presentation increased levels of sigA
- sigA(antibody that improves the immune systems ability to resist infection)
- suggests that there is a difference in the effects of acute and chronic stressors have
AO2: The body’s response to stress
- support the sympathomedullary pathway
- Taylor
- Taylor found that oxytocin, a chemical promoting relaxation and nurturing is more common in women compared to men as a response to an acute stressor
- called this the tend and befriend response
- suggests that there is a gender difference in the activation of the sympathomedullary pathway
AO2: The body’s response to stress
- support the sympathomedullary pathway
- McCarty
- found that adrenaline and noradrenaline were equal in rats of varying ages before being shocked
- after being shocked older rats had lower levels than younger
- suggests that the responsiveness of the sympathomedullary pathway diminishes as animals age and show that age animals respond less effectively to acute stimulation
AO2: research to support the pituitary-adrenal system
-heim et Al
- found that women who were sexually abused as children experienced increased levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone compared to women who hadn’t been abused
- suggests that long-term chronic stressors can cause increased ACTH levels many years after the stress
AO2: research to support the pituitary-adrenal system
-Newcomer et Al
- found that participants given high levels of cortisol had decreased accuracy of recall of a text than participants given a lower dose of cortisol
- suggests that stressful stimulation of the pituitary adrenal system has negative effects on memory
AO1: stress and life changes
-explanation
- life changes are occasional events which result in a big change to lifestyle e.g death of a loved one
- a lot of variation in the impact life changes can have
- can be negative or positive
AO1: stress and life changes
-Holmes and Rache
- developed a questionnaire for identifying major life evens.
- the social readjustment rating scale sets a mean stress score to a list of life events
- total life change unit score is worked out by adding the score of all events experienced in the previous 6 months
- hypothesised that the higher the life change unit score is, the more stressors and individual has had to cope with therefore the greater there chance of being ill
AO2: stress and life changes
-Rache et al
Strength
- investigated the life events and illness rates of 2684 naval personnel and found a positive correlation of +0.118 between life events in the six months
- suggests that the Higher the lcu’s (life change units) are associated with higher illness rates
AO2: stress and life changes
-Rache et al
Limitation (methodology)
It cannot be generalised to women as the study was only done on men and therefore has low external validity
AO2: stress and life changes
-Rache et al
Support (Jacobs et al)
Found that children with cancer were from families which had higher life change scores than the children with less serious illnesses
Further supporting the link between life changes and stress-related illness
AO2: stress and life changes
-Rache et al
Limitation
Each life change has a predetermined life change unit score but individuals may experience the same event differently
AO2: stress and life changes
-Rache et al
General evaluation
General evaluation as a source of stress is that life changes are rare whereas daily hassles due to their constant, repetitive nature may be more stressful
Daily hassles-AO1
Daily uplifts
What they are
Daily hassles: minor irritations, disappointments and annoyances that occur in everyday transactions in the environment
Daily uplifts: are small positive experiences that can to an extent compensate for the hassles
Daily hassles -AO1
Psychologists have identifies two explanation s for the link between daily hassles and stress
Accumulation effect
- Explanation suggests that although minor, several hassles can build up (accumulate) especially if they are left unsolved
- eventually the combined effect will result in stress symptoms
Daily hassles -AO1
Psychologists have identifies two explanation s for the link between daily hassles and stress
Amplication effect
- Explanation suggests that if a person is already in a state of chronic state due to the presence of a life change event, then the presence of minor daily hassles will amplify(make worse) the stress response
- the life change event will deplete their resources so they are less able to cope with minor stressors than they normally would be
Daily hassles -AO2
Kanner et al (support)
- studied 100 men and women and found that hassles are correlated with undesirable symptoms and were a more powerful predictor of illness than life events
- suggests that daily hassles intervene between life events and health with the collective impact of small irritations proving harmful to health
Daily hassles -AO2
Sher et al
- Found that daily hassles were associated with increased cortisol levels in healthy individuals and that this increase contributes to the development of depressive disorders
- suggests that it is the increased levels of the repress hormone cortisol, caused by the stress of daily hassles, which to negatively affects health
Daily hassles -AO2
Methodological limitation
- that it is correlation, it doesn’t establish if daily hassels cause stress
- possible that a third, unaccounted for variable may have brought about the stress or illness
Workplace stress-AO1
Modern workplace is a source of ever-increasing stress
- this can negatively impact on the health of workers but lead to poor performance at work>decrease in productivity,increase in absenteeism (being absent because you don’t feel well)
- leads to high financial cost for industry and health services as well as the human cost to people’s quality of life
Workplace stress-AO1
Main stressors of work Marmot et al Model sample Research methods and techniques
Marmot et al investigated the job-strain model
-purpose that the workplace creates stress and illness in two ways
-one high work load:creating greater job demands
-low job control: having little or no say over deadlines and procedures
7372 civil servants working in London
Questionnaire and longitudinal study
Workplace stress-AO1
Main stressors of work
Marmot et al
Findings
- No link between high workload and stress related illness
- concluded that job demand was not a significant factor in stress
- P’s in higher grade of civil service had developed the fewest cardiovascular problems
- p’s lower grades develop the moment as they expressed a lower sense of the job control&had the poorest social support
Johannson et al 1978
Aim
sample
Workplace stress
- Looked at the effects of performing repetitiveness jobs that require continuous attention and some responsibility
- In Sweden the workplace was a sawmill
- Workplace stress is repetitive tasks sense of responsibility for success of the whole company and unrelenting pace
Johannson et al 1978
Findings and conclusions
- high stress group=high illness rates&higher levels of adrenaline in their urine than low stress group
- higher levels of stress hormones on working workday than on rest days compared with low risk group
- findings suggest that particular aspects of work load like repetition and fast pace are linked to stress related illness
AO1: personality factors and stress:
type A personality
Three major characteristics competitiveness and achievement striving, impatience and time urgency, hostility and aggressiveness
Friedman&Rosenman argue these characteristics made people more vulnerable to the effects of stress because they would lead to raised blood pressure, raised levels of stress hormones leading to an increased risk of coronary heart disease
AO1: personality factors and stress:
type B personality
People with type B personalities are opposite in that the characteristics they have are patient, self confident, relaxed. They have the same degree of ambition but in a steady non-competitive manner
AO2: personality factors and stress:
type A&B personality
Friedman and Rosenman
- Conducted a 12 year longitudinal study with 3500 men who were healthy at the start
- found that more than twice as many type A personalities developed cardiovascular disorders than type B
- suggest that personality traits are a risk factor in developing stress related illness&that psychological factors>psychological effects
AO2: personality factors and stress:
type A&B personality
Ragland and Brand
Age and smoking were significant factors in the 15% of Friedman and Roseman original sample who had died of coronary heart diseases
Suggest that other factors may be more significant than type a and B personality> original conclusions are unsupported
AO2: personality factors and stress:
type A&B personality
Forshaw
- Found that type a characteristic of hostility was the best single predictor of CHD and not type a personality as a whole
- Suggest that the characteristic of hostility is more significant in increasing the risk of developing stress related illness that doesn’t mean that hostility causes CHD
AO1: The hardy personality
Kobasa
some people are more psychologically Hardy than others. Includes many characteristics which if present provide defences against the negative effects of stress
- control: see themselves as being in control of their lives rather than being controlled by external factors
- commitment: involved with the world around them have a strong sense of purpose
- Challenge: sees life’s challenges as opportunities for development rather than as threats
AO2: The hardy personality
Kobasa
- found that participants who had a high stress score but a low illness rate also scored high on all three characteristics of the hardy personality compare to those in the high stress&high illness group
- Suggest that the hardy personality was modifying the effects of stress increasing their ability to cope because they had the same stress levels but lower illness scores
AO2: The hardy personality (Kobasa)
Supported by lifton
found that when investigating students in five US universities of those who had dropped out majority of them had low hardiness scores
Suggesting that qualities in the hardy personality are associated with coping with the stress of uni
AO2: The hardy personality (Kobasa)
Lifton
methodological criticism
Obtained through self report questionnaires weakness of this is that due to social desirability bias participants may not have answered honestly in attempt to be perceived in a positive light
Suggest that finding may be influenced by this and not a true reflection of hardiness
AO1:biological methods of stress management drug therapy benzodiazepines P1: -anxiety -GABA
Stress creates anxiety>an increase of nerve impulses between neurons in the brain the neurotransmitter GABA is the bodies natural form of anxiety relief and has a calming effect on many neurons of the brain by allowing an increase of chloride ions into the neurons
AO1:biological methods of stress management drug therapy benzodiazepines P2: -benzodiazepines -chloride ions -neurons -neurotransmitters
Benzodiazepines work in two ways firstly by increasing the effects and gather by allowing an even greater increase of chloride ions into the neurons making it more difficult for other neurotransmitters to stimulate them. They do this by attaching themselves to the Gabba receptors
AO1:biological methods of stress management drug therapy benzodiazepines P3: What it results in second way benzodiazepines work
- Result is that the ongoing nerve impulse is inhibited which slows down the activity of the nervous system creating a feeling of calm
- Secondly by reducing the activity of serotonin (neurotransmitter that has an arousal effect on the brain) between neurons which then reduces anxiety
AO2: Benzodiazepines
Support the positive effects BZs on stress related anxiety
Havoundjin
Stressed rats
- Havoundjin Who made rats stressed found that this resulted in rapid increases in the amount of chloride irons in the benzodiazepines-GABA receptor, demonstrating the ways acute stress operates
- changes represent the compensatory response to stress provoking changes&its this response that bz drugs have a moderating effect on
AO2: Benzodiazepines
Effectiveness of BZs as a treatment of social anxiety disorder
-Davidson
Found that after 10 weeks 78% of patients=positive effect compared to only 20% on the placebo, 2 year follow up also found A significant improvement in function among those treated with the BZ drugs
Suggest BZs are effective in the short&long term
AO3: Benzodiazepines
Advantage
Disadvantage
-easy to take require little effort&cost effective
- addictive with unpleasant withdrawal symptoms treatment only recommended 4 weeks
- unpleasant side-effects for a minority of patients (can include impairment of long term memory) and increased aggressiveness
AO1: beta-blockers
P1&2
- Work by reducing arousal of sympathetic nervous systems which includes raised blood pressure increased heart rate>Reduces physical symptoms of stress
- Reduces the activity of adrenaline&noradrenaline (part of the sympathomedullary response )
- do this by binding onto receptors of cells in heart & around the body that usually react to stress hormones
AO1: beta-blockers
What is the effect of blocking the receptors
- The cells will been stimulated and the heart e.g Will beat slower
- BB’s The news by sportsman&musicians to reduce arousal which can have a negative impact on performance
AO2: beta-blockers
-lau et Al
supports the positive effects of beta-blockers in reducing stress
- use a meta-analysis found that they were effective in reducing high blood pressure
- found they reduce risk of death by 20% in patients with heart disease, suggesting that they are a lifesaver in some instances
AO2: beta-blockers
Limitation
Don’t offer much support in addressing performance anxiety
Although beta-blockers are claimed to reduce performance anxiety
- 34 singing students given different amounts of the beta-blocker nadolol or aplacebo during end term exams-doses were found to improve performance minimally while high doses hindered performance significantly
- suggests that beta-blockers do not offer much support in addressing performance anxiety
AO2: beta-blockers
General evaluation strength
Limitation
- They have an immediate effect acting directly on the body to reduce heart rate and blood pressure>they can be seen as being an undesirable treatment against possible fatal cases of stress-related hypertension
- do not address the cause of the problem only The symptoms and so may only ‘mask’ the stress; once the treatment ends symptoms may return
AO1: Cognitive behavioural and psychology methods:
Stress inoculation therapy
Mecheinbaum
Although we cannot always change the causes of stress
- Can change the way we think of causes of stress through positive thinking results and positive feelings>reducing stress
- argued that people could inoculate themselves aagainst the disease of stress as a way of coping and then applying it to all future stress
AO1: Cognitive behavioural and psychology methods: Stress inoculation therapy Mecheinbaum First three phases of inoculation 1.)conceptualisation phase 2.) skills acquisition and rehearsal 3.)Application
- )through a client therapist relationship the client is taught how to break down stress into specific components in order to reconceptualise it
- )in which specific skills ffor the individual e.g social skills, relaxation are taught&practice in the clinic then rehearsed in real life
- )clients will use varying&appropriate skills like imagery or role play in different increasingly stressful situations
AO1: Cognitive behavioural and psychology methods:
three phases of inoculation
- )conceptualisation phase
- ) skills acquisition and rehearsal
- )Application
AO2: Cognitive behavioural and psychology methods:
Stress inoculation therapy
positive effects of stress inoculation
-jay and Elliot
Found that parents of children with leukaemia who were shown videos of parent modelling positive self-statements& relaxation techniques showed less anxiety and better coping skills than parents who were given child-focused interventions
-suggests that SIT is an effective treatment for acute stressors
AO2: Cognitive behavioural and psychology methods:
Stress inoculation therapy
Limitation
It is not an easy option in that it requires time and effort of patients who must be motivated and committed over a long time.
This is not always easy for people suffering from stress related disorders
