Unit 2- Ancient Mediterranean Flashcards
White Temple and its ziggurat: Identifiers
Style: Sumerian
Location: Uruk
Date: 3500
White Temple and its ziggurat: Form
- Buttresses spaced across the surface to create a contrasting light-and-shadow pattern
- the ziggurat tapers downward so that rainwater washes off
- entire form resembles a mountain, creating a contrast between the vast flat terrain and the man-made mountain
- Bent-axis-plan: ascending the stairs require angular changes of direction to reach the temple
White Temple and its ziggurat: Function
- on top of the ziggurat is a terrace for outdoor rituals and a temple for indoor rituals
- the temple on the top was small, set back, and removed from the populace; access reserved for royalty and clergy only the base of the temple remains
- the temple interior contained a cella an a smaller rooms meant for the deities to assemble before a select group of priests
White Temple and its ziggurat: Materials
- mud-brick building built on a colossal scale and covered with glazed tiles ro cones
- whitewash used to disguise the mud appearance; hence the modern name of White Temple
White Temple and its ziggurat: Context
- large settlement at Uruk of 40,000 based on agriculture and specialized labor
Uruk may be the first true city in history; the first with monumental architecture - Ziggurat sited within the city
- deity was Anu, god of the sky, most important Sumerian dynasty
- gods descend from the heavens to a high place on EArth; hence the Sumerians built ziggurats as high places
Statues of votive figures, form the Square Temple at Eshnunna: Identifiers
Style: Sumerian
Location: Eshnunna
Date: c. 2700 BCE
Statues of votive figures, form the Square Temple at Eshnunna: Form
- figures are of different heights, denoting hierarchy scale
- hands folded in a gesture of prayer
- huge eyes in awe, spellbound, staring at deity?
- men: bare chested wearing belt and skirt; beard flows in ripple pattern
- women: dress draped over on shoulder
- arms and feet cut away
- pinkie in a spiral; china wedge shape; ear a double volute
Statues of votive figures, form the Square Temple at Eshnunna: Function
- some have inscriptions on back: “It offers prayer” other inscriptions tell the names of th donors or gods
- figures represent mortals; placed ina temple to pray before a sculpture of god
Statues of votive figures, form the Square Temple at Eshnunna: Context
- Gods and humans physically present in their statues
- none have been found in situ, but buried in groups under the temple floor
Standard of Ur: Form
- figures have broad frontal shoulder; bodies in profile; twisted perspective
- emphasis on eyes, eyebrows, ear
- organized in registers; figures stand on ground lines
- reads from bottom to top
Standard of Ur: Content
- 2 sides: war side and peace side; may have been 2 halves of a narrative; early example of a historical narrative
- war side: Sumerian king, half a head taller than the others, has descended from his chariot to inspect captives brought before him, some of whom are debased by their nakedness; in lowest register, chariots advance over the dead
- peace side: food brought in a procession to the banquet; musician plays a lyre; ruler is the largest figure — he wear a kilt made of tufts of wool; may have been a victory celebration after a battle
Standard of Ur: Identifiers
Style: Sumerian
Location: Ur
Date: 2600 BCE
Standard of Ur: Context
- found in tomb at royal cemetery at Ur in modern Iraq
- reflects extensive trading network: lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, shells from the Persian Gulf, and red limestone from India
Standard of Ur: Function Theories
- used as part of a sound box for a musical instrument
- 2 scenes may illustrate the dual nature of an ideal Sumerian ruler: victorious general and father of his people who promotes general welfare
Code of Hammurabi: Identifiers
Style: Babylonian
Location: Susa
Date: 1750 BCE
Code of Hammurabi: Form
a stele meant to be placed in an important location
Code of Hammurabi: Function
- sun god, Shamash, enthroned on a ziggurat, hands Hammurabi a rope, a ring, and a rod of kingship
- Shamash in in a frontal view and a profile at the same time; headdress is in profile; rays appear from behind shoulders
Code of Hammurabi: Context
- written in cuneiform
- text in Akkadian language, read right to left and top to bottom in 51 columns
- law articles are written in a formula: “If a person has done this, then that will happen to him”
Lamassu From the Citadel of Sargon II: Identifiers
Style: Neo-Assyrian
Location: Dur Sharrukin
Date: 720 BCE
Lamassu From the Citadel of Sargon II: Form
- human-headed animal guardian figures: face of a person, ears and body of a bull
- winged
- appears to have 5 legs: when seen from the front, it seems to be standing at attention; when seen from the side, the animal seems to be walking
- faces exude calm, serenity, and harmony
Lamassu From the Citadel of Sargon II: Materials
- carved from a single piece of stone
- meant to old up the walls and arch of a gate
- stone is rare in Mesopotamian art and contrasts greatly with mud-brick construction of the palace
Lamassu From the Citadel of Sargon II: Function
- meant to ward off enemies both visible and invisible
- inscriptions in cuneiform at the bottom portion of the lamassu declare the power of the king and curse his enemies
Lamassu From the Citadel of Sargon II: Context
- Sargon II founded a capital at Khorsabad; the city was surrounded by a wall with 7 gate
- protective sprits placed at either side of the gates
Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes: Identifiers
Style: Persian
Location: Persepolis, Iran
Date: 500 BCE
Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes: Form
- built on artificial terraces, like Mesopotamian architecture
- columns have bell-shaped base that is an inverted lotus blossom; capitals are bulls or lions
- everything seem to have been built to make the viewer smaller
Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes: Function/Content
- built not as a complex of palaces but as a seat for spectacular receptions and festivals
- enter complex through gigantic gates depicting lamassu figures. above gates is inscription the Gates of All Nations, proudly announces this complex as seat of a great empire
- audience hall had 36 columns covered by a wooden roof; used for king’s receptions and New Years
- hypostyle hall is an indication of one of the many cultures that inspired this
- made with mud brick with stone facing; stone symbolizing durability and strength
Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes: Context/Interpretation
- relief sculptures depict delegations from all parts of empire bringing gifts to be stored in the local treasury; Darius selected central location in Persia to ensure protection of treasury
- carved onto the stairs are immortals, king’s guards who were so called because they always numbered 10,000, originally painted and adorned with metal accessories; some covered in gold leaf
- stairs have a central relief of king enthroned with attendants, crown prince behind him, and dignitaries bowing before him
- orderly and harmonious world symbolized by static processions
Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes: History
- built by Darius I and Xerxes I; destroyed by Alexander the Great, perhaps as an act of revenge for destruction of Acropolis in Athens
- many cultural influences contributed to the building of the site, as a sign of Persian cosmopolitan imperial culture
Palette of King Narmer: Identifiers
Style: Predynastic
Location: Egypt
Date: 3000 BCE
Palette of King Narmer: Form
- hierarchy of scale
- figures stand on a ground line
- narrative
- schematic lines delineate Narmer’s muscle structure: forearm veisn and thigh muscles are represented as straight lines, kneecaps as half circles
- composite view of human body: mostly seen in profile, but chest, eye, and ear are frontal
- hieroglyphics explain and add meaning and identify Narmer in cartouche
Palette of King Narmer: Function
- palette used to prepare eye makeup for the blinding sun, although this palette was probably commemorative
- palette carved on 2 sides were for ceremonial purposes
Palette of King Narmer: Content
- relief sculpture depicting King Narmer uniting Upper and Lower Egypt
- Hathor depicted 4x top register, a god as a cow with woman’s face, or Bat, a sky, goddess, bull
- on the front: narmer, largest figure, wears cobra crown of Lower Egypt reviewing beheaded bodies of enemy; bodies seen from above, heads between legs
- on the back: falcon is Horus, god of Egypt, who triumphs over Narmer’s forces; Horus holds a rope around a man’s head and a papyrus plant. symbols of lower Egypt
- Narmer has a symbol of strength, servant behind Narmer holds his sandals as he stands barefoot on the sacred ground as a divine king
- defeated Egyptians lie beneath his feet
Palette of King Narmer: Theories of function
- represents unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under one ruler
- unification expressed as a concept or goal to be achieved
- represent balance of order and chaos
- reference journey of the sun god
Seated Scribe: Identifiers
Style: Old Kingdom
Location: Saqqara, Egypt
Date: 2,500 BCE
Seated Scribe: Form
- not a pharaoh: sagging chest and realistic body rather than idealistic features
- figure has high cheekbones, hollow cheeks, and a distinctive jawline
- meant to be seen from the front
- color still remains on sculpture
Seated Scribe: Function & Content
Function: created for a tomb at Saqqara as a provision for the ka
Content: lifelike- conventional image of a scribe
- inlaid crystal eyes
- holds papyrus in lap, writing instrument (gone) in hand ready to write
Seated Scribe: Context
- attentive expression; thin angular face in readiness of the words pharaoh might dictate
- seated on the ground to indicate comparative low station
Great Pyramids: Identifiers
Style: Old Kingdom
Location: Giza
Date: c. 2500 BCE
Great Pyramids: Form
- each pyramid is a huge pile of limestone with a minimal interior that housed the deceased pharaoh
- each pyramid had an enjoining mortuary temple used for worship
Great Pyramids: Function
- giant monuments of dead pharaohs: Menakaura, Khufu, and Khafre
- preservation of the body and tomb contents for eternity
- some scholars also suggest that the complex served as the kings palace in the afterlife
Great Pyramids: Context
- each pyramid had funerary complex adjacent connected by formal pathway used for carrying dead pharaoh’s body to the pyramid
- shape may have been influenced by a sacred stone relic called a benben, which is shaped like a sacred stone found at Heliopolis; center of the sun god cult
- each side of the pyramid is oriented toward a point on the compass, a fact pointing to an association with the starts and the sun
- Giza temples face east, toward the rising sun, and have been associated with the god Re
Great Sphinx: Identifiers
Style: Old Kingdom
Location: Giza
Date: c. 2500 BCE
Great Sphinx: Form
- carved in situ from a huge rock; colossal sale
- body of a lion, head of a pharaoh and or god
- originally brightly painted to stand out in the desert behind the figure which once rose near ramps rising from the Nile
Great Sphinx: Function
Sphinx seems to be protecting the pyramids behind it, although this theory has been debated
Great Sphinx: Context/Interpretation
- very generalized features, although some say it may be a portraits of Khafre
- cats are royal animals in ancient Egypt, saved grain supply from mice
- Head of Sphinx badly mauled in Middle Ages
- fragment of Sphinx’s beard is in the British museum
King Menkaure and Queen: Identifiers
Style: Old Kingdom
Location: Giza
Date: c. 2500 BCE
King Menkaure and Queen: Form/Materials
- 2 figures attached to a block of stone; arms and legs not cut free
- traces of red paint exist on Menkaure’s face
- extremely hard stone used; symbolizes permanence of the pharaohs presence and his strength on earth
King Menkaure and Queen: Function
- receptacle for the ka of the pharaoh and his queen
- wife’s simple and affectionate gesture, and/or presenting him to the gods
King Menkaure and Queen: Context
- Menakaura’s powerful physique and stride symbolize his kingship, as does heis garb: nemes on the head, an artificial beard, and a kilt with a tab
- original location was the temple of the Mankaura’s pyramid complex at Giza
- society’s view of women expressed in ankle-length tightly draped gown covering the queen’s body; mena and women of the same height indicated equality
- society’s view of king expressed in broad shoulders, muscular arms and legs, and firm stomach
- theory: women may be his mother or goddess Hathor, no divine attributes tho
Temple of Amun-Re Hypostyle Hall: Identifiers
Style: New Kingdom
Location: Karnak
Date: 1550 BCE
Temple of Amun-Re Hypostyle Hall: Form/Content
- axial plan, pylon temple, hypostyle halls
- massive lintels link columns together
- huge columns, tightly packed together, admit litte light into the sanctuary
- tallest columns have papyrus capitals; clerestory allows some light and air ninot the darkest parts of the temple
- columns elaborately painted, carved in sunken relief
- bottom of columns have bud capitals
- massive walls enclose complex
- enter complex through massive sloped pylon gateway into a peristyle courtyard, tehn through a hypostyle hall, then into sanctuary where few were allowed
Temple of Amun-Re Hypostyle Hall: Function
- egyptian temple for worship of Amun-Re
- god housed in the darkest and most secret part of the complex, only accessed by priests and pharaohs
Temple of Amun-Re Hypostyle Hall: Context
- adjacent is an artificial sacred lake– a symbol of the sacred waters of the world, that existed before time
- located on the east side of the Nile, linked by a road with the Karnak temple for the OPet festival
- complex was built near this lake over time; symbolically arose from waters the way civilization did
- theory that the temple represents beginnings of the world: pylons horizon, floor rises to sanctuary of god, temple roof= sky, columns = plants of the Nile
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut: Identifiers
Style: New Kingdom
Location: Luxor
Date: 1475 BCE
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut: Form
- 3 colonnaded terraces and two ramps
- visually coordinated with the natural setting; long horizontals and verticals of the terraces and colonnades repeat the patterns of the cliffs behind; patterns of dark and light in the colonnade are reflected in the cliffs
- terraces originally planted as gardens with exotic trees
Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut: Function
- statue of the god brought before sculpture in procession
- processions up the mortuary temple passed in front of this sttueu of Hatshepsut
- one of 200 statues placed around teh compelx
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters: Identifiers
Style: New Kingdom
Location: Amarna
Date: c. 1350 BCE
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut: Function
- Hatshepsut declared she built temple as a garden for her father Amun (been of divine birth, sired by god Amun)
- was used only for special religious events; lacked subsidiary buildings
- for reasons of cultic purity, royal burial could noted in the temple, royal tomb was location in the mountain behind the temple and reached by way of the Valley of the Kings
Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut: Form
- male pharaonic attributes: nemes or deadcloth, false beard, kilt
- wears white crown of Upper Egypt
- queen is depicted in male costume of pharaoh, yet slender proportions and slight breasts indicate femininity
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters: Form
- state religious shift indicated by an evolving style in Egyptian art: smooth, curved surfaces, low hanging bellies, slack jaws, thin arms, epicene bodies heavy lidded eyes
- at the end of sun’s rays point to the king and queen
Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut: Context
- one of the 10 statues of Hatshepsut with offering jars, part of a ritual in honor of the sun god; pharaoh would kneel only before a god
- inscription on base sasy sishe is offering plants to Amun the sun god
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters: Content
- Akhenaten holds his eldest daughter (left) ready to be kissed
- Nefertiti holds her daughter (right) with another daughter on her shoulder
- intimate family relationships are extremely rare in Egyptian art
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters: Function + Technique
Function: domestic environment was new in Egyptian art; panel is for an altar in a house
Technique: sunken relief, less likely to be damaged than raised, creates deeper shadows and can be appreciated in the sunlight
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters: Context
- Akhenaten abandoned Thebes and created a new capital, originally named Akhenaten and later changed to Amarna; style of art from this period is called the Amarna style
- state religion was changed by Akhenaten to the worship of Aten, symbolized by the sun-disk with a cobra: changed his name to Akhenaten to reflect his devotion to the one god Aten; early monotheism
- Akhenaten and Nefertiti having private relationship with their new god, Aten
- after Akhenaten’s reign, Amarna style slowly replaced by more traditional Egyptian representations
form - Akhenaten and Nefertiti having private relationship with their new god, Aten
- after Akhenaten’s reign, Amarna style slowly replaced by more traditional Egyptian representations
Innermost Coffin of King Tutankhamun: Identifiers
Style: New Kingdom
Location: Valley of the Kings
DAte: 1325 BCE
Innermost Coffin of King Tutankhamun: Form
- gold coffin (6ft) containing body of the pharaoh
- smooth, idealized features on the mask of the boy king
- holds a crook and a flail symbols of Osiris
Innermost Coffin of King Tutankhamun: Function
- mummified body of KIng Tutankhamun was buried with 143 objects, on his head, neck, abdomen, and limbs; gold mask placed over his head
Innermost Coffin of King Tutankhamun: Context
- when Akhenaten died, 2 pharaohs ruled briefly, and then his son Tutankhamun reigned for ten years from age 9 to 19
- Tutankhamun’s father and mother were brother and sister; his wife was his half-sister; perhaps he was physically handicapped because of genetic breeding
Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer: Identifiers
Style: New Kingdom
Location: Thebes
Date: 1275 BCE
Last Judgment of Hu-Nefer:
Form: papyrus scroll, narrative on a uniform register
Function: Illustration from the Book of the Dead, an Egyptian book of spells and charms that acted as a guide for the deceased to make her or her way to eternal life
Context: Hunefer was a scribe who had priestly functions
Anavysos Kouros: Identifiers
Style: Archaic
Location: Anavysos
Date: 530 BCE
Anavysos Kouros: Form
- emulates stance of Egyptian sculpture but is nude; arms and legs are largely cut free from the stone
- rigidly frontal
- freestanding and able to move; in contrast, many Egyptian works are reliefs or are attached to the stone
- hair is knotted and falls in neatly braided rows down the back
- some paint suruvices, some of it encaustic, which would have given the sculpture greater life
- archaic smile enlivens sculpture
Anavysos Kouros: Function
- grave marker, replacing huge vases of the Geometric period
- sponsored by an aristocratic family
Anavysos Kouros: Content
- not a real portrait but a general representation of the deceased
- named after a young military hero, Kroisis; inscriptoin at base identifies him: “Stand and grieve at the tomb of Kroisos, the dead, in fron line slain by the wild Ares”
Peplos Kore: Identifiers
Style: Archaic
Location: Acropolis
Date: c. 530 BCE
Anavysos Kouros: Form
- hand emerges into viewer’s space, breaks out of the mold of static Archaic statues
- indented waist
- breasts revealed beneath drapery
- rounded and naturalistic face
- much of the encaustic paint still remains, animating the face and hair
- broken hand fitted into socket and prob held attribute; may have been a goddess
- marble, painted details
Anavysos Kouros: Context
- named for the peplos, though tot be one of the four traditional garments she is wearing
- recent theory proposes she is the goddess Athene or Artemis
Doryphoros: Identifiers
Style: Classical
Artist: Polykleitos
Location: Pompeii (Roman copy)
Date: c. 450 BCE
Doryphoros: Form
- blocky solidity
- closed stance, broad shoulders, thick torso, muscular body
- idealized body, contrapposto
- body is both tense and relaxed: left arm and right leg are relaxed, right arm and left leg are tense
Doryphoros: Content
- warrior and athlete
- hand once held a spear
- movement is restrained; ideal Spartan body
- averted gazel does not recognize the viewer’s admiration
- contemplative gaze
Doryphoros: Context
- Greek name: Doryphoros
- represents Polykleitos’s ideal masculine figure
- considered a canon for classical body types; general rule for beauty and form, probably linked to a no longer existing treatise by the artist
- marble roman copy of bronze greek original
- found in Pompeii in a place for athletic training, perhaps for inspiration for athletes
Acropolis - Helios, horses, and Dionysus: Identifers
Style: Classical
Artist: Iktinos & Kallikrates
Location: Athens
Date: c. 450 BCE
Acropolis - Helios, horses, and Dionysus: Form
- marble
- greek classical art; contrapposto
- figures seated in left-hand corner of east pediment of Parthenon
- sculptures comfortably ist in triangular space of the pediment
Acropolis - Helios, horses, and Dionysus: Function
- grouping in Parthenon contains figures who are present at the birth of Athena, which is the main topic at the center of the pediment – now lost
Acropolis - Helios, horses, and Dionysus: Content
- left: sun god, Helios, bringing up the dawn with his horses; male nude is Dionysos, god of win, he is lounging
- 2 seated figure may be the goddess Demeter and Persephone, reacting ot the birth of Athena
Acropolis - Helios, horses, and Dionysus: Context
- part of Parthenon sculptures, also called Elgin Marbles
- phidias acted as the chief sculptor of the workshop
Acropolis - Plaque of the Ergastines: Identifiers
Style: Classical
Artist: Iktinos & Kallikrates
Location: Athens
Date: c. 450 BCE
Acropolis - Plaque of the Ergastines: Form
- isocephalism: tradition of depicting heads of figures on the same level
- figures stand in contrapposto
- carved in high relief, reflects placement; the more 3d the relief, the between it could be seen from below
- marble
Acropolis - Plaque of the Ergastines: Content
- 6 ergastines, young women in charge of weaving Athena’s people, are greeted by 2 priests
Acropolis - Plaque of the Ergastines: Context
- part of a frieze from the Parthenon depicts some 360 figures
- scene from the Panathenaic Frieze depicting the Panathenaic Procession, held every 4 years to honor Athena
- first time in Greek art that human events are depicted on a temple
- scene contains religious procession of women dressed in contemporary drapery acting nobly
- procession began at Dipylon Gate, passed through agora, and ended at the Parthenon
Acropolis- Victory Adjusting Her Sandal: Identifiers
Style: Classical
Artist: Kallikrates
Location: Athens
Date: c. 450 BCE
Acropolis- Victory Adjusting Her Sandal: Form
- marble
- gracefully winged figure modeled in high relief
- deeply incised drapery lines reveal body; wet drapery technique
Acropolis- Victory Adjusting Her Sandal: Context
- part of the balustrade on the Temple of Athena nike, a war monument
- one of many figures on the balustrade; not a continuous narrative but a sequence of independent scenes
- importance of military victories was stressed in the images on the Acropolis
Grave Stele of Hegeso: Identifiers
Style: Classical
Artist: Kallimachos
Location: Athens
Date: c. 410 BCE
Grave Stele of Hegeso: Form
- classical period of Greek art
- use of contrapposto in the standing figure
- jewelry painted in, not visible
- architectural framework
- text includes name of the deceased
Grave Stele of Hegeso: Function
- grave marker
- in Geometric and Archaic periods, Greeks used kraters and kouroi to mark graves; in the Classical period, stelae were used
Grave Stele of Hegeso: Content
- commemorates the death of Hegeso; an inscription identifies her and her father
- genre scene: Hegeso examines a piece of jewelry from a jewelry box handed to her by a standing servant; may represent her dowry
- standing figure has a lower social station, placed before a seated figure
Grave Stele of Hegeso: Context
- erected in Dipylon cemetery in Athens
- attributed teh sculptor Kallimachos
Winged Victory of Samothrace: Identifiers
Style: Hellenistic
Location: Samothrace
Date: c. 190 BCE
Winged Victory of Samothrace: Form
- marble
- monumental figure
- dramatic twist and contrapposto of the torso
- wet drapery look imitates water playing on the wet body
- illusion of wind on the body
Winged Victory of Samothrace: Function
- meant to sit on a fountain representing a figurehead on a boat; the fountain would splash water around the figure
Winged Victory of Samothrace: Content
- large heroic figure of Nike held a trumpet, wreath, or fillet in her right hand, found with open palm and 2 outstretched fingers, suggesting that she was not holding anything and was simply holding her hand up in a gesture of greeting
Winged Victory of Samothrace: Context
- probably made to commemorate a naval victory in 191 BCE; Nike is the goddess of victory
- the boat at the base is an ancient battleship with oar boxes and traces of a ram
- only one wing and breast found in situ on Samothrace
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena: Identifiers
Style: Hellenistic
Location: Pergamon
Date: c. 175 BCE
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena: Form
- marble
- deeply carved figures overlap one another; masterful handling of spatial illusion; figures break into the viewer’s space from the frieze
- dramatic intensity of figures and movement; heroic musculature
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena: Function
gigantomachy on the base of the Pergamon Altar illustrates the victories of the goddess Athena who is worshipped at the altar
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena: Content
- describes battle between gods and giants; giants depicted as helpless are dragged up the stairs to worship gods
- athena grabs Alkyoneos by the hair and rags him up the stair to worship Zeus
- Nike on the right crowns Athena in victory
- gaia the earth goddess lokson in horror and pleads for the fate of her sons, the giants
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena: Context
- god’s victory over the giants offers a parallel to Alexander the great’s defeat of the Persians
- also acts as an allegory of a Greek military victory by Eumenes II
Seated Boxer: Title
Style: Hellenistic
Location: Rome
Date: c. 100 BCE
Seated Boxer: Form/Content
- Bronze
- older mana, past his prime, looks defeated
- smashed nose; lips sunken in suggesting broken teeth
- cauliflower ears
- nude fighter; hands wrapped in leather bands
- figure evinces sadness, stoicism, and determination
- rare surviving Hellenisitc bronze
- blood, denoted in copper, drops from his face onto his right arm and thigh
- copper used to highlight his lips and nipples, the straps on his leather gloves and the wounds on his head
Seated Boxer: Function
May have been good luck charm for athletes; evidence of to3es worn away from being touched
Seated Boxer: Context
- may have been part of a group or perhaps a single sculpture, head turned to face an unseen opponent
- founding a Roman bath in Rome
Athenian Agora: Identifiers
Style: Archaic - Hellenistic
Location: Athens, Greece
Date: c. 600 BCE
Athenian Agora: Function
- a plaza at the base of the Acropolis in Athens with commercial, civic religious, and social buildings where ceremonies took place
- setting for the Panathenaic Festival, ceremonies, and parades to honor Athena
- The Panathenaic Way cutes through along a hilly terrain from the northwestern to the southeastern corners
Athenian Agora: Content
- surrounding the plaza were important buildings, including: a bouleuterion, a chamber used by a council of 500 citizens, called a coule, who were chosen by a lot to serve for one year, a tholos: round structure manned by senators for emergency meetings, dining hall
- several stoas covered walkways with columns on one side and wall on the other
Acropolis - Parthenon: Identifiers
Style: Classical
Artist: Iktinos & Kallikrates
Location: Athens, Greece
Date: c. 450 BCE
Acropolis - Parthenon: Form
- greek predilection for algebra and geometry omnipresent in design of building- 17 columns on the side and 8 columns in the front, ratio of length is the width 9:4
- unusually light interior had 2 windows in the cella
- floor curves upward in the center of the facade to drain off rainwater and to deflect appearance of sagging at the ends
- since columns at the ends are surrounded by light, they are made thicker so as to look the same as the other columns
- ionic elements in a Doric temple: the reaer room contains Ionic capitals, and frize on interior is Ionic
Acropolis - Parthenon: Function
- interior built to house a massive statue of Athena, to whom the building was dedicated; also included the treasure of the Delian League
- the statue, made of gold and ivory over a wooden core, no longer exists
Acropolis - Parthenon: Context
- constructed under the leadership of Pericles after the Persian sack of Athens in 480 bce destroyed the original acropolis
- pericles used the extra funds in the Persian war treasury to build the Acropolis; Greek allies were furios that the funds were not returned to them
Acropolis - Parthenon: Context/History
- built as a Greek temple dedicated to Athena, the patroness of Athens: Athena and Poseidon vied for control over Athens and offered gifts to the populace to entice them, Poseidon made slat water spring from the ground on the Acropolis, athen made olive tree grow on site
- sacred sites associated with these deeds in Erechtheum, temple adjacent to Parthenon
- after Greek period, Parthenon became a Greek Orthodox church then Roman Catholic church dedicated to mary
- in islamic period, converted to a mosque
- destroyed the Venetians in an attack against the Turks
- Half of the sculptures were removed to England by Lord Elgin in 19th century
Acropolis- Temple of Athena Nike: Identifiers
Style: Classical
Artist: Kallikrates
Location: Athens, Greece
Date: c. 450 BCE
Acropolis- Temple of Athena Nike: Form
- tetrastyle (4 columns)
- amphiprostyle (front & rear facades)
- ionic temple
Acropolis- Temple of Athena Nike: Functoin
- dedicated to Athena Nike- Personification of Victory
- built to commemorate Greek victory over the Persians in the Battle of Marathon; Nike is the goddess of victory
- once contained a figure of Nike inside
Acropolis- Temple of Athena Nike: Context
- on the way to the Parthenon
- Peloponnesian War- Athens and its allies vs Sparta (Athens’ long time nemesis) and allies (431-404 BCE)
- compare to victory adjusting her sandal- scul[ted on a balustrade or railing that once framed teh building
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena (at Pergamon): Identifiers
Style: Hellenistic
Date: 175 BCE
marble
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena (at Pergamon): Form
- altar is on an elevated platform at the top of a dramatic flight of stairs
- a frieze 7.5 ft. high and more than 400 ft. long wraps around monument
- ionic columns frame the monument
Great Altar of Zeus and Athena (at Pergamon): Function + Context
Function: altar dedicated to Zeus and Athena
Context: conscious effort to be in dialogue with the Panathenaic frieze on the Parthenon
* parallels made between pergamon victories over barbarians in a recent war, Alexander the Great’s defeat of the Persians, and the gods’ defeat of the giants in mythology
Niobides Krater: Identifiers
Style: Classical
Artist: Niobid Painter
Location: Athens
Date: 450 BCE
Niobides Krater: Form
- clay, red-figure technique with white highlights
- first time in vase painting that isocephalism (tradition of depicting heads of figures on the same level) has been discarded
- may have been the influence of wall paintings, although almost no Greek wall paintings survive. numerous figures placed at various levels
Niobides Krater: Technique + Function + History
Technique: red-figure ware
Function: ceremonial krater; practical kraters used for mixing water and wine or storing liquids
History: found in Orvieto, Italy; many Greek vases found in Etruscan tombs
Niobides Krater: context/content
- called the Niobides Krater bc killing of Niobe’s children is depicted on one side: NIobe who had 7 sons and 7 daughters bragged about her fertility to the god Leto who only had 2 children. Leto’s 2 children Apollo and Artemis sought revenge by killing Kiobe’s 14. Niobe is punished for her hubris. Children are slaughtered
- other other side of vase, story is subject of scholarly debate: One theory is that is represents Herakles in center surrounded by heroes in arms and Athena ( on the left), another theory is that warrior of Marathon are depicted placing themselves before a sculpture of Herakles seeking protection in upcoming battle
Alexander Mosaic: Identifiers
Style: Republican
Location: House of the Faun, Pompeii
Date: c. 100 BCE
mosaic
republican copy of 100 bce mosaic
Alexander Mosaic: Form
- crowded with nervous excitement
- extremely complex interweaving of figures; spatial illusionism through foreshortening, chiaroscuro, reflection in shield
Alexander Mosaic: Content
- Alexander at left does not wear a helmet showing his bravery
- pierces body of an enemy with his spear without glancing at victim
- wide eye is trained on Darius
- darius: center right on chariot, horrified, weakly cedes victory, charioteer commands horses to make their escape
- darius looks stunned at his brother Oxyanthres is stabbed, brother portrayed here as sacrificing himself to save the king
- dying man’s right hand is still gripping his weapon, as though he wished to pull it out of his body, but his body is already collapsing onto bloody corpse of black horse
Temple of Minerva: Function + Materials
Function: dedicated to the goddess Minerva, Etruscan equivalent to Greek Athen
Materials: mud brick and wood, perishable materials
Tomb of Triclinium: Form
- tufa and fresco
- ancient convention of men painted in darker colors than women
- polychrome checkerboard pattern on ceiling; circles may symbolize time; pattern may reflect motifs on fabric tents erected for funeral banquets
Temple of Minerva: Form
- little architecture survives; model drawn from descriptions
- temple raised on a podium; defined visible entrance
- deep porch places doorways away from steps
Tomb of Triclinium: Function
Painted tomb in an Etruscan necropolis
Tomb of Triclinium: Identifiers
Style: Etruscan
Location: Tarquinia, Italy
Date: c. 480 BCE
Alexander Mosaic: Technique + Function
Function: roman floor mosaic found in a house in Pompeii, based on an original Greek mural painting
Technique: use of tesserae instead of previously used pebbles
* tesserae allow for greater flexibility and more complex compositions and shadings
Temple of Minerva: Context
- steps in front direct attention to the deep porch; entrances emphasized
- 3 doors represent 3 gods; interior divided into 3 spaces
- etruscan variation of Greek Capitals, called tuscan order
- Inspired by Greek architecture but different: columns unfluted, made of wood, not marble, pediments made of wood and no sculptures, etruscan columns spaced further apart (made of lighter material), used sculpture made of terracotta rather than stone on roofs
Temple of Minerva: Identifiers
Style: Etruscan
Location: Veii
Date: c. 500 BCE
Tomb of Triclinium: Content
- funerals seen as moments in which to celebrate the life of the deceased
- dancing figures play musical instruments in festive celebration of the dead
- trees spring up between amin figures and shrubbery grows beneath reclining couches- rural setting
Sarcophagus of the Spouses: Form
- full length portraits
- great concentration on the upper bodies, less on the legs
- bodies make an unnatural L-shape at the waist
- broad shoulder, knotted hair, and simple anatomical details
Sarcophagus of the Spouses: Identifiers
Style: Etruscan
Location: Cerveteri
Date: c. 520 BCE
Tomb of Triclinium: Context
- banqueting couples recline while eating in the ancient manner
- named after a triclinium, an ancient Roman dining table, which appears in the fresco
Sarcophagus of the Spouses: Function + Technique
Function: sarcophagus of a married couple, whose ashes were placed inside, or perhaps a large urn used for ashes of the dead
Technique: large terracotta construction made in 4 separate pieces and joined together
Sarcophagus of the Spouses: Context
- depicts ancient tradition of reclining while eating; men and women ate together, unlike in ancient Greece
- symbiotic relationship; men has a protective arm around woman and woman feeds man, reflecting high standing women had in Etruscan society
Sarcophagus of the Spouses: Content
- both once held objects in their hands- perhaps man held an egg to symbolize life after death; or woman holding bottle of perfume or pomegranate
- couples reclines against wineskins that act as cushions wineskins allude to ceremony of sharing wine at funerary rituals
Apollo from Veii: Form + Materials
- masterpiece of terra cotta casting
- figure has spirit, strides quickly forward
- archaic Greek smile
- meant to be seen from below
- tightly fitting garment
- hair in knots, dangles down around shoulders
- originally brightly painted
Sarcophagus of the Spouses: Context
- unlike Greek sculpture, which appears in pediments and it made of stone, Etruscans prefer terra cotta figure that are mounted on roof lines
- one of 4 large figure that once stood on the roof temple at Veii
- part of a scene from Greek mythology involving the third labor of Hercules; Apollo looks directly at Hercules, an important figure in Etruscan religion
- may have been carved by Vulca of Veii, most famous Etruscan sculptor of the age
House of Vettii: Identifiers
Style: Republican/Imperial Roman
Location: Pompeii
Date: 60 CE
House of Vettii: Form
- cut stone and fresco
- narrow entrance to the home sandwiched between several shops
- large reception area called the atrium which is open to the sky and has a catch basin called an impluvium in the center; rooms called cubicula radiate around atrium
- peristyle garden in rear with fountain, statuary, and more cubicula; this is the private area of the house
- axial symmetry of house; someone entering the house can see through to the peristyle garden in the rear
- exterior of house lacks windows; interior lighting comes from the atrium and the peristyle
House of Vettii: Fucnction
- private citizen’s home in Pompeii, originally built during the Republic with early imperial additions
House of Vettii: Context
- 2 brothers owned the house; both were freedmen who made their money as merchants
- extravagant home symbolized owners’’ wealth
- after the earthquake of 62 AD. many wealthy Romans left Pompeii leading to the rise of the nouveau riche
The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): Identifiers
Style: Imperial Roman
Location: Rome Italy
Date: 75 CE
The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): Function
stadium meant for wild and dangerous spectacles - a gladiator combat, animal hunts, naval battles- but not religious persecution
The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): Form
- accommodated 50,000 spectators
- concrete core, brick casting, travertine facing
- 76 entrances and exits circle the facade
- interplay of barrel vaults, groin vaults, arches
- facade has engaged columns: first story is Tuscan, second story is Ionic, third story is Corinthian, top story is flattened Corinthian
( above squared windows at top level are small brackets meant to hold flagstaffs; staffs are anchors for retractable canvas roof called a velarium used to protect crowd - sand placed on floor to absorb blood
- hypogeum and subterranean part of an ancient building
The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater): Context
- real name is Flavian Amphitheater; name Colosseum comes from a colossal statue of Nero that used to be adjacent
- building illustrates what popular entertainment was like for ancient Romans
- entrances and staircases were separated by marble and iron railing to keep social classes separate; women and lower classes sat at the top leve
- much of the marble was pulled off in the middle ages and repurposed
Head of a Roman Patrician: Identifiers
Style: Republican
Location: Otricoli
Date: 50 BCE
Head of a Roman Patrician: Form
- veristic style/verism: form of realism (hyper-realistic); over exaggerated; extremely aged and care worn
- Bust sculpture: portrait of a person that includes the head, neck, and part of the shoulders and breast, usually mounted on a base or column
Head of a Roman Patrician: Function
- admire age of the elderly
- symbolizes virtues of: wisdom, determination, experience, valor and strength
- all romans hoped to obtain these virtues
Head of a Roman Patrician: Content
- individual depicted is unknown
- political leader
- an elder - “senior citizen”
Head of a Roman Patrician: Context
- debate: is it a true portrait or was it exaggerated?
- part of Republican Roman era
- unlike Greek, the Romans believed that a head was enough to suffice as a portrait
Augustus of Primaporta: Identifiers
Style: Augustan (Imperial)
Location: Primaporta, Italy
Date: 25 CE
Augustus of Primaporta: Form
- marble - liley a copy: most likely one of many copies
- contrapposto stance
- bas-relief on the breastplate
- 6ft. 8 in. tall
Augustus of Primaporta: Function + Content
Function, visual propaganda, shows religion of Rome
Content: breastplate, idealized statue, young and attractive
* cupid symbolizes divine lineage (son of venus, julius caesar claimed to be descended from Venus)
* military uniform shows his leadership battle
Augustus of Primaporta: Content
1 . Tellus (mother earth) holding 2 babies and cornucopia
2. Apollo on a winged griffin
3. Diana riding a stag
4 and 5. represent the captive provinces of Gaul and Spain
6. represent Augustus
8. Sol (god of sun) driving a chariot
9. Caelus (sky god) spreading the heavens over the scene
10. Aurora (the dawn) holds an urn
11. LUna ( the moon) holds a torch
12. Sphinxes, represent defeat of Cleopatra in Egypt
Augustus of Primaporta: Context
- Pax Romana - Peace in Rome: 200 years of Peace
- Augustus is first emperor of Rome
- found at the villa of his wife Livia
- power of Athens
Forum of Trajan: Identifiers
Style: Imperial
Artist: Architect - Apollodorus
of Damascus
Date: 112 CE
Forum of Trajan: Form
- basilica Ulpia
- largest in rome
- used for matters of justice and commerce
- mainly marble
Forum of Trajan: Function
- forums were the civic, juridical, and social heart of the city of ancient Rome; included a temple
- showcase power
- glorify the accomplishments of Emperor Trajan
Forum of Trajan: Form and Content Column of Trajan
- 125 ft. tall
- frieze tells story of Trajan’s victory over the Dacians: bas-relief, shows preparing for battle, sacrifices, leading troops
- wraps around 23 times
- moved a hill
Forum of Trajan: Context
- Flavian Dynasty ended in a similar way to the Julio-Claudian: Nero and Domitian had expensive lifestyles and egos
- first non-Italian to rule Rome: Trajan - armies went further distances, more social programs, so popular he was called Optimis (The Best)
- felicior Augusto melior Traiano: luckier than Augustus, better than Trajan
Pantheon: Identifiers
Style: Imperial
Location: Rome, Italy
Date: 125 CE
Pantheon: Form
- concrete
- dome - a rounded vault forming the roof of a building with a circular base: gets lighter as it increases in height, coffers- sunken decorative panels
- oculus - Latin for eye, opening at the top of a dome that lets light in
- front facade has a deep porch
- pediment
- with monolithic Corinthian columns
Pantheon: Function
- a temple to all the gods
- contained sculptures of the gods
- expression of Hadrian’s wealth and power
- place where the emperor could hold court
Pantheon: Content
- oculus serves to let light in
- dome: vault of the heavens
- interior space: rob of the earth
- originally filled with bronze statues
Pantheon: Context
- built of Hadrian: may have been started by Trajan, everywhere he went a statue and/or arch was set up in his honor
- synthesis of tradition and innovation
- later was used as a Catholic Church
- one of the best preserved building of antiquity
- admired Greek culture
Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: Identifiers
Style: Late Imperial
Date: 250 CE
Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: Form
- high relief
- chaotic scene
- no illusion of space behind figures
- rejection of classical representation
Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: Function
- burial for unknown wealthy person
- display wealth and status of the deceased
Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: Content
- battle scene: romans vs. northern foes: romans are more attractive than the enemy
- leader is the son of Trajan Decius: hero, no helmet, invincible
- lots of movement
Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: Context
- reflects influence of Christianity and other eastern religions
- afterlife for human body
- emperors continue to be cremated at first; private citizens opt for burial
- demand for sarcophagi increased; major industry
- wester: reliefs on front and sides eastern: all sides
- greek mythology was most common subject
- repetition of subjects indicated pattern books
- purchased by Cardinal Ludovisi in 1621 after his discovery of Rome
