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CfE Advanced Higher Biology > Unit 2 - All Key Areas > Flashcards

Unit 2 - All Key Areas Flashcards

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1
Q

Anthropomorphism

A

the attribution of human characteristics or behaviour and emotions to an animal’s behaviour

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2
Q

Arthropods

A

joint-legged invertebrates that are identified by their segmented body, typically with pared appendages, for example Drosophila melanogaster (a fruit fly), wasps, butterflies, spiders and crabs

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3
Q

Chordates

A

sea squirts and vertebrates, for example birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish

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4
Q

Convergent evolution

A

the independent evolution of similar features in different species

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5
Q

Divergent evolution

A

the process whereby groups from the same common ancestor evolve and accumulate differences, resulting in the formation of new species

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6
Q

Duration

A

the length of time each behaviour occurs during the observation period

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7
Q

Elusive species

A

species that are difficult to see because of their habitat, behaviour or rarity

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8
Q

Ethogram

A

lists species-specific behaviours to be observed and recorded in the study

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9
Q

Frequency

A

the number of times a behaviour occurs within the observation period

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10
Q

Hazard

A

any source of potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on an individual

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11
Q

Indicator species

A

species that, by their presence, absence or abundance, can give information about an environmental factor

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12
Q

Latency

A

the time between the stimulus occurring and the response behaviour

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13
Q

Mark and recapture

A

method for estimating population size; a sample of the population is captured, marked and released (M); after an interval of time, a second sample captured (C); if some individuals in the second sample are recaptures (R), estimate of the total population (N) can be calculated

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14
Q

Model organisms

A

organisms that are either easily studied or have been well studied to provide information that can be applied to other species that are more difficult to study directly

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15
Q

Nematodes

A

also called roundworms; unsegmented thread-like body; many of them are parasitic, living inside their host, for example Caenorhabditis elegans

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16
Q

Phylogenetics

A

the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among individuals or groups of organisms

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17
Q

Point count

A

sampling technique that involves the observer recording all individuals seen from a fixed location

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18
Q

Quadrat

A

square frame of known area for sampling sessile organisms along a belt transect

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19
Q

Remote detection

A

ability to shown an animal’s presence from a distance using a camera trap or scat sampling

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20
Q

Risk

A

the likelihood of harm arising from exposure to a hazard

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21
Q

Risk assessment

A

involves identifying risks and control measures to minimise them

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22
Q

Scat sampling

A

sampling technique used for elusive species whereby animal droppings are collected, which provide information about species abundance and diet

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23
Q

Taxonomy

A

the identification and naming of organisms, and their classification into groups, based on shared characteristics

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24
Q

Terrain

A

physical geography of the land

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25
Q

Time budget

A

the amount or proportion of time that animals spend in different behaviours, or in performing different classes of behaviour

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26
Q

Transect

A

a line or belt across a habitat or part of a habitat along which the number of organisms of each species can be observed and recorded at regularly placed stations

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27
Q

Antigenic variation

A

change between different antigens during the course of infection of a host

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28
Q

B lymphocytes

A

white blood cells that produce specific antibodies in response to specific antigens

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29
Q

Competitive exclusion

A

where the niches of two species are so similar that one declines to local extinction

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30
Q

Definitive host

A

the organism on or in which the parasite reaches sexual maturity

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31
Q

Ectoparasite

A

parasite that lives on the surface of its host

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32
Q

Endoparasite

A

parasite that lives within the tissues of its host

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33
Q

Epidemiology

A

the study of the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases

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34
Q

Extended phenotype

A

the expression of a parasite’s genotype into the phenotype of its host by manipulating the host phenotype to facilitate its transmission

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35
Q

Fundamental niche

A

the niche that is occupied in the absence of any interspecific competition

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36
Q

Gametocytes

A

the precursors of male and female gametes

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37
Q

Herd immunity threshold

A

the density of resistant hosts in the population required to prevent an epidemic

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38
Q

Hydrolytic

A

enzymes any enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of a chemical bond

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39
Q

Inflammatory response

A

injured or wounded areas become warm and red due to increased blood flow, bringing white cells for defence

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40
Q

Intermediate host

A

a host that is normally used by a parasite in the course of its life cycle and in which it may multiply asexually but not sexually

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41
Q

Latency

A

viruses escape immune surveillance by integrating their genome into host genomes, existing in an inactive state

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42
Q

LEDC

A

less economically developed country

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43
Q

Memory lymphocyte

A

lymphocyte specific for a specific antigen; they are retained in the body following infection and can produce a secondary response to the same antigen

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44
Q

Natural killer cells

A

lymphocytes responsible for destroying abnormal cells

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45
Q

Niche

A

a multi-dimensional summary of tolerances and requirements of a species

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46
Q

Non-specific defences

A

general response to infection, including phagocytosis

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47
Q

Phagocyte

A

white blood cell in non-specific defence, engulfing and destroying foreign antigens; may also present antigens to lymphocytes

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48
Q

Realised niche

A

the niche that is occupied in response to interspecific competition

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49
Q

Resource partitioning

A

where the realised niches are sufficiently different that potential competitors can co-exist

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50
Q

RNA retroviruses

A

viruses that use the enzyme reverse transcriptase to form DNA

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51
Q

Specific cellular defences

A

activity of the immune system in response to a particular pathogen, triggered by antigens located on the surface of cells

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52
Q

Transmission

A

the spread of a parasite to a host

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53
Q

Vaccines

A

contain antigens that will elicit an immune response

54
Q

Vector

A

an organism that does not cause disease itself but which spreads the parasite from one host to another

55
Q

Virulence

A

the harm caused to a host species by a parasite

56
Q

Fixed action pattern

A

species-specific sequence of behaviours in which one behaviour leads to the next

57
Q

Honest signals

A

characteristics that can indicate fitness and favourable alleles that increase the chances of survival of offspring or a low parasite burden, suggesting a healthy individual

58
Q

K-selected (K-strategists)

A

breeding strategy in species that are larger, live longer and produce relatively few, larger offspring; they give a high level of parental care and offspring have a high probability of surviving to adulthood

59
Q

Lek

A

a communal area in which two or more males of a lekking species perform courtship displays called lekking

60
Q

Male—male rivalry

A

males will fight for dominance and access to females for mating through real or ritualised conflict

61
Q

Monogamy

A

the mating of a pair of animals to the exclusion of all others

62
Q

Parental investment

A

any parental expenditure that benefits offspring; it increases the offspring’s chances of surviving and reproductive success at the expense of the parent’s ability to invest in other offspring

63
Q

Polyandry

A

one female mates with a number of males in the same breeding season

64
Q

Polygamy

A

individuals of one sex having more than one mate

65
Q

Polygyny

A

one male mates with a number of females in the same breeding season

66
Q

Reversed sexual dimorphism

A

sexual dimorphism in which females are more conspicuous than males

67
Q

r-selected (r-strategists)

A

breeding strategy in species that are smaller, mature more rapidly and produce a larger number of smaller offspring, each of which receives limited parental care and most will not reach adulthood

68
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

the differences in appearance between males and females of the same species, such as in colour, shape, size and structure, as a product of sexual selection

69
Q

Sexual selection

A

selection for characteristics that have little survival benefit for the individual, but increase their chances of mating

70
Q

Species-specific sign stimulus

A

a feature or action that indicates intent, often to start courtship

71
Q

Chiasmata

A

a point at which paired chromosomes remain in contact during the first metaphase of meiosis, and at which crossing over and exchange of genetic material occurs between the strands

72
Q

Crossing over

A

the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of two homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during meiosis

73
Q

Cytokinesis

A

the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells

74
Q

Hermaphrodites

A

species that have functioning male and female reproductive organs in each individual

75
Q

Heterogametic

A

dissimilar sex chromosomes, for example mammalian males where the Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome, resulting in two kinds of gamete

76
Q

Homogametic

A

sex chromosomes that do not differ in morphology, resulting in only one kind of gamete

77
Q

Homologous pair

A

a pair of chromosomes of the same size, centromere position and sequence of gene; one is of maternal origin and the other paternal

78
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

inheritance of genetic material within a generation

79
Q

Independent assortment

A

formation of random combinations of chromosomes in meiosis and of genes on different pairs of homologous chromosomes by the passage of one of each diploid pair of homologous chromosomes into each gamete independently of each other pair

80
Q

Linked genes

A

genes located on the same chromosome

81
Q

Meiosis

A

the division of the nucleus that results in the formation of haploid gametes from a diploid gametocyte

82
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

development of an offspring from a female gamete without fertilisation Recombination — the establishment of new combinations of alleles following crossing over

83
Q

Sex chromosomes

A

a pair of chromosomes that can determine sex in some species

84
Q

Sister chromatids

A

the genetically identical strands of chromosomes SRY gene — gene on the Y chromosome that determines development of a male by expressing a protein called testes-determining factor (TDF)

85
Q

Vegetative cloning

A

any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or a specialised reproductive structure

86
Q

X chromosome inactivation

A

a process by which most of one X chromosome is randomly inactivated to prevent a double dose of gene products, which could be harmful to cells

87
Q

Evolution

A

the change over time in the proportion of individuals in a population differing in one or more inherited traits.

88
Q

Mutation

A

the original source of new sequences of DNA. These new sequences can be novel alleles; most mutations are harmful or neutral, but some may be advantageous

89
Q

Sexual selection

A

a non-random process involving the selection of alleles that increase the individual’s chances of mating and producing offspring.

90
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

physical differences based on genetic differences between females and males

91
Q

Male-male rivalry

A

Sexual selection can result from male-male rivalry, due to large size or weaponry, which can increase access to females through conflict.

92
Q

Female choice

A

Involves females assessing the fitness of males

93
Q

Genetic drift

A

Occurs when chance events cause unpredictable fluctuations in allele frequencies from one generation to the next.

94
Q

Population bottlenecks

A

Can lead to genetic drift; occurs when a population size is reduced for at least one generation and has an effect on allele frequencies in the population.

95
Q

Founder effects

A

Can lead to genetic drift and occurs through the isolation of a few members of a population from a larger, original population. The gene pool of the new population is not representative of the original pool.

96
Q

Selection pressures

A

Environmental factors (biotic or abiotic) that influence which individuals in a population pass on their alleles.

97
Q

Biotic selection pressures

A

include competition, predation, disease, parasitism

98
Q

Abiotic selection pressures

A

include changes in temperature, light, humidity, pH or salinity.

99
Q

Hardy-Weinberg principle

A

states that, in the absence of evolutionary influences, allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant over generations.

100
Q

Conditions to achieve HW equilibrium

A

No natural selection; mating must be random; no mutation; large population sizes; no gene flow.

101
Q

Fitness

A

An indication of an individual’s ability to be successful at surviving and reproducing; it provides a measure of the tendency of some organisms to produce more surviving offspring than others.

102
Q

Absolute fitness

A

the ratio of the number of individuals of a particular genotype AFTER selection, to those BEFORE selection.

103
Q

Relative fitness

A

The ratio of the number of surviving offspring per individual of a particular genotype to the number of surviving offspring per individual of the most successful genotype.

104
Q

Co-evolution

A

The process by which 2 or more species evolve in response to selection pressures imposed by each other.

105
Q

Symbiosis

A

Co-evolved intimate relationships between members of 2 different species.

106
Q

Mutualism

A

A form of symbiosis whereby both organisms in the relationship are interdependent on each other for resources/other services. Both organisms gain (+/+)

107
Q

Commensalism

A

A symbiotic relationship where only one organism benefits from the interaction (+/0)

108
Q

Parasitism

A

A symbiotic relationship where the parasite benefits in terms of energy/nutrients and the host is harmed (+/-)

109
Q

Pairs of species involved in symbiosis

A

Herbivores and plants; pollinators and plants; predators and prey; parasites and host

110
Q

Red Queen Hypothesis

A

States that, in a co-evolutionary relationship, change in the traits of one species can act as a selection pressure on the other species. Both must adapt to avoid extinction.

111
Q

Absolute fitness

A

the ratio between the number of individuals of a particular genotype after selection to those before selection

112
Q

Bottleneck effect

A

a sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events or human activities

113
Q

Co-evolution

A

the process by which two or more species evolve in response to selection pressures imposed by each other

114
Q

Commensalism

A

symbiosis in which only one of the species benefits (+/0)

115
Q

Evolution

A

the change over time in the proportion of individuals in a population differing in one or more inherited traits

116
Q

Female choice

A

a mechanism of sexual selection in which females assess males’ fitness and choose the males with which they will mate

117
Q

Fitness

A

a measure of the tendency of some organisms to produce more surviving offspring than competing members of the same species

118
Q

Founder effects

A

when the gene pool of a new population is not representative of that in the original gene pool; occurs through the isolation of a few members of a population from a larger population

119
Q

Gene pool

A

the total number of genes and their alleles in a population of one species

120
Q

Genetic drift

A

the random increase or decrease in frequency of DNA sequences from one generation to the next, particularly in small populations

121
Q

Hardy-Weinberg (HW) principle

A

in the absence of evolutionary influences, allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant over the generations

122
Q

Male-male rivalry

A

a mechanism of sexual selection in which males fight for females, often using weaponry such as antlers and tusks

123
Q

Mutualism

A

both species in the interaction are interdependent on each other for resources or other services; as both organisms gain from the relationship, the interaction is (+/+)

124
Q

Natural selection

A

the non-random increase in the frequency of advantageous alleles and the non random decrease in the frequency of deleterious alleles

125
Q

Parasitism

A

symbiosis in which the parasite benefits in terms of energy or nutrients and the host is harmed as the result of the loss of these resources (+/-)

126
Q

Red Queen hypothesis

A

states that, in a co-evolutionary relationship, change in the traits of one species can act as a selection pressure on the other species

127
Q

Relative fitness

A

the ratio of the number of surviving offspring per individual of a particular genotype to the number of surviving offspring per individual of the most successful genotype

128
Q

Selection pressures

A

the environmental factors that influence which individuals in a population pass on their alleles

129
Q

Sexual dimorphism

A

females are generally inconspicuous; males usually have more conspicuous markings, structures and behaviours Sexual selection the non-random process involving the selection of alleles that increase the individual’s chances of mating and producing offspring

130
Q

Symbiosis

A

co-evolved intimate relationships between members of two different species

CfE Advanced Higher Biology (4 decks)

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