Unit 2 AC3.2

Question 1

What are the general criticisms of biological theories of criminality?

Answer 1

1. Environmental factors - Biological theories ignore environmental factors. Biology may give criminal characteristics but may need an environmental trigger.
2. Sample bias - Researchers often use studies of convicted criminals, but these may not be representative of the criminals who got away. Can’t generalise crime.
3. Gender bias - Most research focuses on males, does not explain female criminality
4. Crime is a social construct - What counts as crime varies between cultures and over time, so it makes no sense to look for universal explanations.

Question 2

What is the key idea of Lombroso’s theory

Answer 2

Lombroso argued that criminals are physically different from non-criminals, for example in terms of their facial characteristics.

Question 3

What are the strengths of Lombroso’s theory?

Answer 3

• Lombroso was the first to study crime scientifically
• Research shows the importance of examining clinical and historical records
• His later work took some limited account of social and environmental factors
• By arguing that offenders were not freely choosing to commit crime, Lombroso helps us focus on how to prevent offending rather than punishment

Question 4

What are the limitations of Lombroso’s theory?

Answer 4

• Research since Lombroso has failed to show a link between facial features and crime
• He failed to compare his findings with a control group. He only studies Italian men in prisons, not any women nor any non-criminals
• By describing criminals as ‘primate savages’, Lombroso equates non-western societies with criminals - a form of racism

Question 5

What is the key idea of Sheldon’s somatotypes theory?

Answer 5

Sheldon argued that somatotypes are related to criminality. Mesomorphs are muscly, ectomorphs are tall and thin and endomorphs have rounder bodies.n

Question 6

What are the strengths of Sheldon’s somatotypes theory?

Answer 6

• Other studies have replicated Sheldon’s finding. (Glueck and Glueck found that 60% of the offenders in the study were mesomorphs)
• The most serious delinquents in Sheldon’s sample were the ones with the most extreme mesomorph body type

Question 7

What are the strengths of Sheldon’s somatotypes theory?

Answer 7

• Glueck and Glueck found criminality is best explained by a combination of psychological, biological and environmental factors
• Criminals may develop mesomorph body type (using the gym in prison)
• Social class may be the cause of offending and of body type. Working class jobs are typically more manual.
• Labelling may play a part. Mesomorphs are labelled as tough, self-fulfilling property or attract police attention.
• Sheldon doesn’t account for ecto/endomorphs who commit crime

Question 8

What is the key idea of twin studies?

Answer 8

Genetic theories argue that crime has genetic causes. Identical (MZ) twins genetically identical, so if one twin is a criminal, we should find the other one is too.

Question 9

What are the strengths of twin studies?

Answer 9

• Because MZ twins are genetically identical it is logical to examine if their offending behaviour is identical
• Twin studies support genetic theories. (Ishikawa and Raine found a higher concordance rate for identical twins than non-identical twins)

Question 10

What are the limitations of twin studies?

Answer 10

• If genes were the only cause of criminality, the concordance rate would be 100%
• High concordance rates may be due to shared environment
• Identical twins are treated the same and are closer than non-identical, one twin may be influenced by the other
• It is impossible to isolate and measure the effect of genes separately from environmental factors
• In early studies there was no way of knowing for certain if twins were identical, DNA testing did not exist.

Question 11

What is the key idea of adoption studies?

Answer 11

Comparing adoptive children’s level of criminality with both of their biological and adoptive parents may allow us to see how far genes influence criminality.

Question 12

What are the strengths of adoption studies?

Answer 12

• Adoption studies overcome the problem faces with twin studies, where biological twins are brought up in the same household
• The research is logical - nature v nurture
• Findings give some support to genetic theories

Question 13

What are the limitations of adoption studies?

Answer 13

• (Gottfredson and Hirschi argue adoptive studies show genes have little effect on criminality)
• Adopted children are often placed in environments similar to their birth family i.e. local area, class and ethnicity
• Many children are not adopted immediately after birth, early environment may have an impact

Question 14

What is the key idea of XYY syndrome?

Answer 14

Some men have an extra male Y chromosome, which may cause violent behaviour

Question 15

What are the strengths of XYY syndrome?

Answer 15

• Jacob et al found an association between XYY syndrome and offenders imprisoned for violent behaviour
• Price and Whitmore found some link between the syndrome and property crime

Question 16

What are the limitations of XYY syndrome?

Answer 16

• Doesn’t explain female criminal behaviour
• Even if some violent offenders have the syndrome, this doesn’t prove it is the cause of violence
• XYY males are tall and well built, they fit the stereotype of a ‘violent offender’ and get labelled as such, XYY over-represented in samples, overstates
• XYY males may be overrepresented in prison because they have low intelligence - prison sample skewed
• Syndrome is rare (about 1 in 1,000 men) therefore cannot explain crime

Question 17

What is the key idea of brain injuries and disorders as a theory of criminality?

Answer 17

Injuries, disorders and diseases of the brain may cause it to malfunction in ways that change personality, morals or self-control, leading to criminal behaviour.

Question 18

What are the strengths of brain injuries and disorders as a theory of criminality?

Answer 18

• In a few extreme cases, brain injury or disease has led to major changes in individuals personality and behaviour
• There is some correlation between abnormal EEG (Brainwave) readings and psychopathic criminality
• Prisoners are more likely to have brain injuries

Question 19

What are the limitations of brain injuries and disorders as a theory of criminality?

Answer 19

• Crimes caused by brain injuries or diseases are rare. The sufferer’s original personality is more important.
• It is not clear that abnormal brain wave activity causes psychopathic criminality
• Prisoners’ higher likelihood of brain injury could be a result of criminality rather than the cause of it (fights for example)

Question 20

What is the key idea of biochemical explanations?

Answer 20

Biochemical factors may trigger criminal behaviour by affecting brain chemistry and mental processes

Question 21

What are the strengths of biochemical explanations?

Answer 21

• Sexual hormones, blood sugar levels and substance abuse can affect mood, judgement and aggression
• Testosterone and male offending peak at the same age
• Crack cocaine strongly linked to violent crime
• Alcohol produces disinhibition reducing se;lf-control
• Biochemical factors recognised by court. (Death of a baby caused as a result of post-natal depression (partial defence))

Question 22

What are the limitations of biochemical explanations?

Answer 22

• Biochemical processes may predispose some individuals to offend, may require an environmental factor to trigger behaviour
• Scarmella and Brown found testosterone levels do not greatly affect aggression
• Schalling found high testosterone levels in young men led to verbal aggression but not physical
• Infanticide may be due to isolation and responsibility for caring for a new baby rather than hormones

Question 23

What are the general criticisms of individualistic theories

Answer 23

1. Artificiality: research conducted in laboratories
2. Sample bias: studies often on convicted criminals, these may not be representative of the criminals that got away
3. Neglect of social factors: little account for the social factors that cause criminality such as poverty and discrimination

Question 24

What is the key idea of Freud’s theory?

Answer 24

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory explains criminal behaviour in terms of faulty early socialisation preventing the individual resolving unconscious conflicts between the ID and the Superego.

Question 25

What are the strengths of Freud’s theory?

Answer 25

• The theory points to the importance of early socialisation and family relationships in understanding criminal behaviour
• Psychoanalytic explanations have had influence on policies

Question 26

What are the limitations of Freud’s theory?

Answer 26

• Critics doubt the existence of an ‘unconscious mind’
• Psychoanalytic explanations are unscientific and subjective - rely on claims

Question 27

What is the key idea of Bowlby’s theory?

Answer 27

Bowlby stresses the importance of parent-child bond. He sees maternal deprivation as a cause of criminality.

Question 28

What are the strengths of Bowlby’s theory?

Answer 28

• Bowlby’s research provided statistical evidence.
• His work shows the need to consider the role of parent-child relationships in explaining criminality

Question 29

What are the limitations of Bowlby’s theory?

Answer 29

• It was a retrospective study. Relies on recall
• Bowlby accounts for the 39% of children in terms of maternal deprivation but not the 61%
• Bowlby’s own later study found no evidence of ‘affectionless psychopathy’
• Sammons and Putwain note the idea of a link between maternal deprivation and criminality is no longer accepted

Question 30

What is the key idea of Eysenck’s personality theory?

Answer 30

Eysenck sees criminality as the result of extraverted-neurotic personality. Extraverts seek stimulation, leading to rule breaking, while neurotics’ anxiety prevents them learning from punishment.

Question 31

What are the strengths of Eysenck’s theory?

Answer 31

• The theory is useful to describe how measurable tendencies could increase the risk of offending
• Eysenck predicts that high E, N and P scored lead to criminality and some studies support this theory

Question 32

What are the limitations of Eysenck’s theory?

Answer 32

• Farrington examined a range of studies. These show prisoners are neurotic and psychotic, but not extraverted
• The E scale may be measuring two separate things - impulsiveness and sociability
• Evidence shows a correlation between personality and crime. Could prison cause people to become neurotic
• Theory uses a self-report questionnaire - relies on honesty

Question 33

What is the key idea of Sutherland’s Differential Association theory?

Answer 33

Sutherland argues that we learn criminal behaviour through socialisation in social groups where the attitudes and values we are exposed to in these groups favour law-breaking.

Question 34

What are the strengths of Sutherland’s Differential Association theory?

Answer 34

• Crime running in family supports the theory i.e. learn from parents
• Matthews found that juvenile delinquent are more likely to have friends who commit antisocial acts i.e. learn from peers
• Attitudes of work groups can normalise white collar crime

Question 35

What are the limitations of Sutherland’s Differential Association theory?

Answer 35

Not everyone who is exposed to ‘criminal influences’ becomes a criminal. They might learn from family or peers how to commit crime, but never put this into practice.

Question 36

What is the key idea of the Operant Learning theory?

Answer 36

If a particular behaviour results in desirable outcomes, it is likely to be repeated. If it results in an undesirable outcome, it is unlikely to be repeated.

Question 37

What are the strengths of the Operant Learning theory?

Answer 37

• Skinner’s studies of learning in animals show they learn from experience through reinforcement. Some human learning is also this kind
• This can be applied to offending. Jeffery states that if crime leads to more rewarding than punishing outcomes, they will be more likely to offend

Question 38

What are the limitations of the Operant Learning theory?

Answer 38

• Operant learning is based on studying animals. This is not adequate model of humans
• The theory ignores internal mental processes such as thinking, values and attitudes
• Humans have free will and can choose their course of action

Question 39

What is the key idea of the Social Learning theory?

Answer 39

Bandura argues that we learn behaviour through observation and imitation of others. If we see a model being rewarded for acting in a deviant way, we don’t need to experience the reward ourselves in order to copy it.

Question 40

What are the strengths of the Social Learning theory?

Answer 40

• Unlike Skinner, Bandura takes into account the fact that we are social beings. Learn from experiences of others
• Bandura shows that children who observed aggressive behaviour being rewarded, imitated that behaviour. Shows importance of role models

Question 41

What are the limitations of the Social Learning theory?

Answer 41

• Theory is based on laboratory studies. Artificial setting, findings may not be valid for real-life settings
• Theory assumes behaviour is completely determined by learning experiences, ignores freedom of choice - conflicts legal views
• Not all observed behaviour is easily imitated

Question 42

What is the key idea of the criminal personality theory?

Answer 42

Yochelson and Samenow’s theory sees criminal behaviour as the result of errors and biases in criminals’ thinking patterns.

Question 43

What are the strength’s of the Criminal personality theory?

Answer 43

• The idea that criminals’ thinking patterns are different has led to further research
• Successful treatment, CBT has been developed

Question 44

What are the limitations of the Criminal personality theory?

Answer 44

• No control group of non-criminals to compare
• Sample was representative. No women, most of the men found insane/psychiatric patients
• High sample attrition. Only 30 in the study at the end

Question 45

What is the key idea of the Moral Development theory?

Answer 45

The theory argues that criminals are stuck at an immature stage of moral development unable to make correct moral choices, which leads to criminal behaviour.

Question 46

What are the strengths of the Moral Development theory?

Answer 46

• Some studies show delinquents are more likely to have immature development
• Thornton and Reid found the theory to be truer for crimes such as theft than violent crimes