Unit 2 Flashcards
A hypothesis is…
A prediction
Hypothesis that indicates a direction in results
Directional
Hypothesis that doesn’t indicate a direction in results
Non directional
Null hypothesis means …
Prediction won’t happen - if so by chance
Operationalisation means
How you intend to measure the DV
An extraneous variable is…
Any variable except the IV that influences findings
Situational variable is …
An extraneous variable that’s in the environment
Eg earthquake, hot sunny day
Participant variable is…
An extraneous variable caused by the participant
Eg: stress, being ill, tiredness
A confounding variable ….
Effects findings so much you’re no longer measuring what was intended
Covariables are ….
Associated variables - but doesn’t say how or why
Lab experiment is….
Takes place in a controlled environment
IV manipulated to see effect on DV
Field experiment is…..
Takes place in a more natural environment/real life setting
IV manipulated to see effect on DV
Natural experiment is ….
Takes place in a real life setting
IV left to naturally occur to see effect on DV
2 Benefits 2 drawbacks of lab experiments
+ high control + establish cause and effect
- artificial - demand characteristics
2 Benefits 2 drawbacks of field experiments
+ real life + ecologically valid
- limited variable control - difficult to replicate
2 Benefits 2 drawbacks of natural experiments
+ real life + ecologically valid
- not replicable - no control over variables
4 types of Naturalistic observation
Covert
Overt
Participant
Non participant
Covert observations…
Participants are unaware of the observation
Overt observations….
Participants know about the observation
1 benefit and 1 drawback of covert observation
+ validly
- unethical
1 benefit and 1 drawback of overt observation
+ ethical
- demand characteristics
1 benefit and 1 drawback of participant observation
+ practical
- may lack notes
1 benefit and 1 drawback of non participant observation
+ practical
- validity
Structured observations take place in…
Takes place in a lab
NOT an experiment!
1 benefit and 1 drawback of a structured observation
+ reliable
- poor validity
What is content analysis
A way of systematically describing written/spoken/visual communication
Provides quantitative data
3 benefits of content analysis
+ accounts for individual difference
+ establish behaviour causes
+ good to study emotion
3 drawbacks of content analysis
- not scientific
- can’t generalise
- lacks validity
Process of content analysis
1- draw up categories
2- tally, counting references to each category
3 types of interview
Structured
Unstructured
Semi structured
Types of question in a questionnaire
Open ended question
Closed questions
2 benefits to interviews
+ generalisable if sample is representative
+ easy to repeat
2 drawbacks to interviews
- objective
- unreliable answers
2 benefits to questionnaires
+ easy to gain large sample
+ easy to replicate
2 drawbacks to questionnaires
- unhonest response
- subjective
3 benefits to quantitative data
+ easy conclusions
+ scientific
+ superficial
2 drawbacks to quantitative data
- lacks validity
- narrow information
3 benefit is to qualitative data
+ meaningful and valid
+ ecological validity
+ can convert to quantitative
2 drawbacks to qualitative data
- hard to compare
- less scientific
Sampling frame where everyone has an equal chance
Random
Sampling frame where first available is taken
Opportunity
Sampling frame where every Nth person is chosen
Systematic
Sampling frame where population is categorised and chosen in same proportions
Stratified
Sampling frame where target no. of participants of different groups
Quota
Sampling frame where participants volunteer themselves
Volunteer
Sampling frame where participant offers up another participant
Snowballing
Types of snowball Sampling
Non discrimative exponential
Discriminate exponential
1 benefit 1 drawback of random sampling
+ unbiased
- issues in being representative
1 benefit 1 drawback of opportunity sampling
+ easy and quick
- not representative
1 benefit 1 drawback of systematic sampling
+ representative sample
- can be difficult
1 benefit 1 drawback of stratified sampling
+ very representative
- time consuming
1 benefit 1 drawback of quota sampling
+ focused research
- not always representative, can be bias
1 benefit 1 drawback of volunteer sampling
+ motivated people
- not representative
1 benefit 1 drawback of snowballing sampling
+ good for minorities
- little control
2 Observational sampling techniques
Time sampling
Situation/event sampling
4 types of experimental design
Independent measures
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
Counterbalanced design
Independent measures design involves….
Different participants from different groups
1 benefit 1 weakness of independent measures
+ no order effects
- participant variables
Repeated measures involves….
Participants doing both sets of conditions
1 benefit 1 weakness of repeated measures
+ no individual differences
- no order effect. - demand characteristics
Matched pairs involves…..
Match participants into both groups via characteristics and treat as independent measures
1 benefit 1 weakness of matched pairs
+ no order effect
- participant variables
4 levels of measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Nominal data has…
Exclusive categories with no relative rank
Ordinal data has….
Ranked exclusive categories where attributes are ordered via rank
Interval data has…..
Continuous scale - no absolute 0
Ratio data has….
Continuous scale that has an absolute 0
Internal Reliability can be measured by…
Split half method
External reliability can be measured using….
Test rated method
Inter-rather reliability
2 issues within validity
Demand characteristics
Researcher bias
How to solve validity issues
Single blind design
Double blind design
Experimental realism
2 benefits of case studies
Valid and rich data
Ecologically valid
2 drawbacks of case studies
Low generalisability
Not replicable
2 types of research methods
Longitudinal
Cross sectional
2 benefits 2 weakness of longitudinal research methods
+ no participant variables
+ easy comparisons
- hard to keep participants
- issues with generalisability
2 benefits 2 weaknesses of cross sectional research
+ cheaper
+ easier to get funding
- cannot compare
- participant variables
3 types of brain scans
CAT scan (computed axial tomography) MRI scan (magnetic resonance imaging) PET scan (positron emission tomography)
2 benefits of a CAT scan
+ useful for abnormal structures
+ provides higher quality pictures
2 weaknesses of CAT scans
- more radiation than X-rays
- only structural info
2 benefits of an MR scan
+ more detailed soft tissue than CAT
+ no radiation
2 weaknesses of MRI scans
- can take a long time
- can be comfortable
2 benefits of PET scans
+ real chemical info
+ show brain activity
2 weaknesses of PET scan
- extremely costly
- less precise than MRI
CAT scans are….
Series of X-rays, combined too form 2D/3D pictures
MRI scans involve..
Magnetic field causes atoms in brain to change their alignment when the magnes on, they emit radio signals when off
PET scans involve….
Administering a radioactive tracer (glucose), radiation detectors can see areas & build picture of activity
Ethical issues that need to be considered are….
Confidentiality Deception Risk of harm Risk of values Informed consent Debriefing
A peer review is ….
An assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field
1 benefit and 2 weaknesses of a peer review
+ improved validity
- hard to find an expert
- publication bias
What was the aims of milligrams obedience study?
Look at levels of obedience when told by an authourative figure
Methodology of milgrams study
Lab experiment
40males 20-50 years
‘Study of memory’
took place at Yale uni
Procedures of milgrams study
- Draw slips to identify learner (confederate) and teacher — this is rigged!!!
- L strapped to chair, T taken to adjacent room
- T reads series of word pairs, L asked to learnt them
- T gives the word with 4 others, L asked to identify what word is the pair
- L answers via switches
- If correct, T move on, if wrong gives shock
- Subsequent wrong answers, shock increases
- If t wanted to stop, prods/ encouragement were given
Results of milgrams study
100% obeyed up to 300V
65% gave the full 450V
Conclusions of milgrams study
Social setting is a powerful behaviour determinant
Socialised to recognise authority and obey it
Strengths of milgrams study
G
R- lab experience the, standardised, consistent results
A- relates to blind obedience in holocaust
V- high experimental validity
E- all debriefed, all examined by physistians
Weaknesses of milgrams study
G- 40 males, androcentric, ethnocentric
R
A
V- low ecological validity, low population validity
E- inadequate protection, no informed consent, filmed on hidden camera, right to withdraw prevented
Aim of kohlbergs moral philosopher study
Develop on ideas of Piaget on moral development
Methodology of kohlbergs study
72 Chicago boys 10-16yrs
58 followed for 20 years
Cross sectional study
Repeated measures
Procedure of kohlbergs study
- 2 hour interview based on 10 dilemmas eg. Hienz dilemma
- Asked questions on thee dilemmas eg ‘should he have stolen?’ ‘Would it change if…?’
- Looked at reasons for their decision not if they were morally right or wrong
Findings of kohlbergs study
- reasons changed as participants got older
- 3 distinct levels, 2 sub levels in each (preconventional, conventional, postconventional)
- no everyone achieves them all
What are the 3 levels of development according to kohlbergs?
Preconventional (3-7yrs)
Conventional (8-13 yrs)
Postconventional (adulthood)
Strengths of kohlbergs study
G-
R- standardised scenarios, supporting research
A- helped parenting techniques
V
E- briefed and debriefed, content, right to withdraw
Weaknesses of Kohlbergs study
G- all male fom Chicago, androcentric and ethnocentric
R- cross sectional, thus different upbringings = extraneous variable
A
V- artificial, lacks ecological validity, sample bias lacks population validity
E- one distress caused by dilemmas
What was the aim of personal investigation 1 on perception
To see if context influences perception of an ambiguous stimulus
What inferential stat test was used in PI1 and why?
Chi squared
Study had nominal data, independent measures, tested association
1 Reliability issue with PI1 and how to solve it
- noise caused poor concentration - complete in a quiet area
2 validity issues in PI1
- Artificial, low ecological validity — do similar tests regularly
- Unrepresentative (opp sample) — use a systematic sample technique
What inferential stat was used in PI and why?
Spearmans rho
See strength of correlation, unrelated covariable s, ordinal/interval data
What are the 5 inferential statistic tests
Chi squared Sign Mann Whitney Wilcoxon Spearmans rho
