Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

Elementary Psych > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the difference between sensation and perception?

A

Sensation is the process by which sensory receptors receive and represent stimuli from the environment, while perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Can sensation occur without perception? Why or why not?

A

Yes, sensation can occur without perception. Sensory receptors can receive stimuli, but if the brain does not interpret or organize this information, perception does not take place (e.g., blind spot, subliminal stimuli).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Which part of the eye contains the rods and cones?

A

The retina.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

How does visual information travel from the eye to the brain?

A

Rods and cones → Bipolar cells → Ganglion cells → Optic nerve → Brain.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are the main functions of rods in vision?

A

Rods help with night vision, peripheral vision, and detecting movement. They are sensitive to low light but do not detect color.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

How do cones contribute to color perception?

A

Cones allow us to see colors and fine details. They function best in daylight and are responsible for high visual acuity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

How does the Opponent Process Theory explain color vision?

A

It states that cone photoreceptors are linked in opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white), where activation of one color inhibits the perception of its pair.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Why do afterimages occur?

A

When one part of the opponent process (e.g., red) is overstimulated, it becomes fatigued. When looking at a blank surface afterward, the opposite color (e.g., green) appears due to this temporary imbalance.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is the difference between dichromacy and monochromacy?

A

Dichromacy: A person has only two types of cones instead of three, limiting color perception.
- Monochromacy: A person has only one type of cone, resulting in a complete lack of color perception (seeing in shades of gray).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is perception as construction?

A

Perception is the brain’s interpretation of sensory input, meaning we don’t directly experience raw stimuli but a processed version of reality.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What were Democritus’ ideas about taste?

A

He believed taste was due to the shape of food particles (e.g., sweet = round, salty = isosceles triangle).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are the five basic tastes?

A

Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is transduction in taste?

A

It is the process of converting chemical stimuli in food into neural signals using taste receptors in the fungiform papillae.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

How does transduction differ across sensory modalities?

A

Different senses convert different types of stimuli into neural signals:
- Taste: chemicals in saliva
- Vision: photons of light
- Audition: sound waves
- Somatosensation: pressure, temperature
- Olfaction: chemicals in the air

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is the Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies (Johannes Müller)?

A

Different sensory qualities arise from different neural structures, meaning each sense has its own specialized receptors.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is the labeled-line model of taste?

A

Each taste receptor responds only to a specific taste (e.g., sweet receptors fire only for sweet substances, not salty ones).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What is wrong with the traditional “taste map” of the tongue?

A

It falsely suggests different areas of the tongue specialize in specific tastes; in reality, all taste receptors are spread throughout the tongue.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What is the difference between taste and flavor?

A

Taste is solely what the tongue perceives, while flavor is a combination of taste and retronasal smell (smelling through the mouth when exhaling).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is the difference between orthonasal and retronasal smell?

A

Orthonasal smell occurs when we inhale through the nose, while retronasal smell happens when we breathe out while eating.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

How does the Gestalt principle relate to perception?

A

Gestalt psychologists believed “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts,” meaning perception is more than just raw sensory data.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What are the three categories of tasters identified by Bartoshuk et al.?

A

Nontasters: Fewer taste buds (1/4 of the population)
- Normal tasters: Average number of taste buds (1/2 of the population)
- Supertasters: High number of taste buds, making them more sensitive to flavors (1/4 of the population)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What factors influence individual taste perception besides taste buds?

A

Cultural differences and personal exposure to foods (e.g., foods parents introduce to children).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is the difference between sensation and perception?

A

Sensation is the process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive stimuli from the environment.
- Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to recognize meaningful objects and events.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

*Why don’t we perceive the world as upside down and reversed, even though the retina receives images this way?

A

The brain processes and flips the image to create a coherent perception of the world.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
What would happen if a person wore inversion goggles for a week?
They would initially struggle, but over time, their brain would adapt to the inverted vision.
26
What is perceptual and sensory adaptation?
It occurs when a stimulus remains constant over time, and the brain gradually stops perceiving it.
27
What is perceptual constancy, and what are its types?
Perceptual constancy is the ability to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in illumination or retinal images. - Types: - **Shape constancy**: Perceiving objects as the same shape despite changes in perspective. - **Size constancy**: Perceiving objects as the same size despite distance differences. - **Color constancy**: Perceiving colors consistently under varying lighting conditions. - **Brightness constancy**: Perceiving brightness consistently under different illumination.
28
Why do visual illusions occur?
The brain makes "best guesses" based on contextual cues, which can sometimes lead to misperceptions.
29
What is the Ponzo illusion, and how does it work?
The Ponzo illusion is an optical illusion where two horizontal lines of the same length appear different due to depth cues. - It relies on **size constancy**, as the brain interprets distant objects as larger than they appear on the retina.
30
Why do some people see "The Dress" as blue/black while others see it as white/gold?
Differences in **color constancy** and how the brain interprets lighting conditions cause variations in perception.
31
How does the brain use shortcuts in perception?
The brain detects patterns and takes shortcuts to process information efficiently. - These shortcuts allow for perceptual constancy but can also lead to illusions when they fail.
32
What is transduction in vision?
The process where rods and cones convert light energy into an electrochemical signal.
33
What is the difference between rods and cones?
Rods are highly sensitive but provide low acuity and no color. Cones are less sensitive but offer high acuity and color vision.
34
What are the two visual processing streams, and what do they process?
The **dorsal stream** (rod-like) processes "Where/How" (spatial and motion). Parietal lobe - The **ventral stream** (cone-like) processes "What" (object recognition and color). Temporal lobe
35
What are feature detectors, and why are they important?
Feature detectors are specialized neurons that respond to specific visual stimuli like edges, lines, and orientations. They help break down complex objects into parts for recognition.
36
What evidence supports the existence of feature detectors?
The **Contact Lens Study (Pritchard et al., 1960)** showed that when images were stabilized on the retina, entire bars and curves would disappear, suggesting feature-specific fatigue.
37
What does Gestalt psychology say about perception?
"The whole is more than the sum of its parts"—perception involves organizing visual elements into meaningful wholes.
38
What is the Thatcher illusion, and what does it reveal?
A face appears normal when inverted, but grotesque when upright with altered features. This shows that face perception relies on configuration rather than individual parts.
39
What are the three main factors that determine when and how long we sleep?
Biological factors** (e.g., metabolic rate, developmental stage) - **Environmental factors** (e.g., light exposure, noise, work schedule) - **Cultural factors** (e.g., social norms, work habits)
40
What are the different sleep stages, and what brain waves are associated with each?
Wakefulness** → Beta waves (fast, small amplitude) - **Relaxed wakefulness** → Alpha waves (slower) - **Stage 1** → Theta waves (5-10 min) - **Stage 2** → Sleep spindles & K-complexes (~20 min) - **Stage 3 & 4** → Delta waves (large, slow; ~30 min each) - **REM sleep** → Increased brain activity, rapid eye movement, muscle relaxation
41
Why is REM sleep called “paradoxical sleep”?
The brain and body systems become more active, but muscles remain very relaxed.
42
How many times do we cycle through the sleep stages each night?
4 to 5 times
43
How long after falling asleep do we first enter REM sleep?
About **90 minutes**
44
What is the role of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)?
It is the **brain’s internal clock**, located in the **hypothalamus**. - It regulates circadian rhythms based on light and internal cues.
45
What experiment was conducted to study sleep without environmental cues?
Participants were shielded from clocks and sunlight. - **Result**: Humans and animals can maintain an **almost 24-hour cycle**, but it’s not exactly 24 hours, showing both internal and external cues play a role.
46
What other bodily functions follow a circadian rhythm?
**Cortisol levels** (highest in the morning) - **Body temperature**
47
What happens to rats when they are totally deprived of sleep?
They die faster than if deprived of food**, likely due to **immune system failure** and **excessive heat loss**.
48
What are the two key aspects of consciousness?
Monitoring** ourselves and our external environment (awareness). - **Controlling** ourselves (starting and stopping behavior based on goals).
49
According to Freud, what are the three levels of consciousness?
**Conscious** (thoughts we are aware of). - **Preconscious** (thoughts that can become conscious). - **Unconscious** (thoughts that are too painful or anxiety-producing to be conscious).
50
What is the problem with Freud’s idea of repression?
If something is truly unconscious, how would the mind know what to repress?
51
What is the cognitive unconscious?
The idea that mental systems can operate on an **unconscious level**, and some processes become **automatic**.
52
What is attention, and how does it work?
- Attention involves **selection**, meaning some things are attended to while others are ignored. - It acts like a **spotlight** or **a gate**—we are aware of what we focus on.
53
What is the dichotic listening task?
A psychological test where participants hear different messages in each ear and must focus on only one.
54
What is inattentional blindness?
The failure to notice something **fully visible** because attention is focused elsewhere.
55
What is inattentional amnesia?
The idea that we **detect information** but do not store it in memory because we weren’t paying attention.
56
What are the early and late theories of attention?
**Early theory**: No attention → No detection → No awareness - **Late theory**: Detection → No attention → No memory → No awareness
57
What is dual-task interference?
Performance **declines when doing two tasks at once**, even if they are simple or highly practiced.
58
According to Ophir et al. (2009), how do multitaskers perform on task-switching?
**Multitaskers perform worse** because their attention is split, making it harder to focus.
59
What is the main takeaway about attention and consciousness?
**Attention is the gateway to consciousness**—we only become aware of what we focus on.
60
Why is it important to stay off the phone while driving?
Because attention is **limited**, and distractions significantly reduce reaction time and awareness.
61
What are the three main theories on why we sleep?
Conserve & Restore View**: Sleep conserves energy and restores physiological functions. - **Preservation**: Sleep keeps us safe from predators. - **Memory Consolidation**: Sleep helps strengthen memories.
62
What tool is used to identify different sleep stages?
Electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure brain waves.
63
What is the sequence of sleep stages?
Sleep begins with non-REM (stages 1-4) and then transitions into REM sleep.
64
What was the main finding of Karni et al. (1994) regarding sleep and learning?
Learning was disrupted when **REM sleep and dreaming were prevented**, suggesting REM sleep aids memory consolidation.
65
What did Louie & Wilson (2001) discover about sleep and learning?
The brain **replays experiences** during REM sleep using "place cells."
66
Does REM sleep uniquely contribute to learning?
Not necessarily; Walker et al. (2002) found that non-REM sleep might also contribute.
67
What is Freud’s theory of dreaming?
Dreams are the **"royal road to the unconscious"**, where painful unconscious thoughts are disguised by an **internal censor**.
68
What is the difference between manifest and latent content in Freud’s theory?
**Manifest content**: The dream’s literal storyline (the "candy coating"). - **Latent content**: The hidden, unconscious meaning of the dream.
69
What is the Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis (Hobson & McCarley, 1977)?
Dreams result from the **activated brain during REM sleep** attempting to create meaning from random neural activity.
70
What evidence supports the Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis?
*Brain-damaged** patients who lose a specific sensory modality **stop dreaming** in that modality.
71
Who was Franz Anton Mesmer, and what was his contribution to hypnosis?
He proposed **Magnetic Force Therapy**, which was later debunked as a **placebo effect**.
72
What were the contributions of Puységur and Braid to hypnosis?
**Puységur**: Discovered that patients in a **relaxed sleep-like state** could be treated. - **Braid**: Developed **fixation techniques** and coined the term **neuro-hypnology (hypnosis)**.
73
Is hypnosis a magical or unconscious state?
No, hypnosis is a **willing and cooperative state** where a person **accepts some distortions of reality**.
74
What are the two components of hypnotic susceptibility?
- **Suggestibility**: How easily one accepts suggestions. - **Absorption**: Ability to become deeply engaged in mental imagery.
75
Why don’t you go blind when you blink?
Because sensory memory retains visual information briefly, allowing for continuity.
76
What are the two key properties of iconic memory?
**Capacity:** Large, as it retains everything across blinks. - **Duration:** Short, around 1/3 of a second.
77
**What is change blindness and why does it occur?
It is the inability to notice changes between scenes due to a time gap preventing the use of iconic memory.
78
What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller (1956)?
About **7 ± 2** items.
79
What technique can improve short-term memory capacity?
Chunking:** Grouping related information into meaningful units.
80
How did Chase et al.'s memory expert expand his short-term memory capacity?
He chunked numbers into meaningful segments, such as race times.
81
How long does short-term memory last without rehearsal?
About **18–20 seconds**, after which information decays.
82
What are the two main causes of forgetting in short-term memory?
**Decay:** Information fades over time. - **Interference:** New information pushes out old information.
83
What model explains the structure of memory?
The **Modal Model** by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968).
84
What are the three stages of memory?
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
85
What is the process of encoding in memory?
Encoding is the process of getting information into our memory
86
What is retrieval in memory?
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory, either through recall or recognition
87
What are the three types of memory in the Multistore Model?
Sensory memory, Short-term memory (STM), and Long-term memory (LTM)
88
How long does sensory memory last?
Milliseconds to 3-4 seconds
89
What is the capacity of short-term memory?
5-9 items (about 7 on average)
90
What is the duration of long-term memory?
**It is infinite.
91
What are the two main types of long-term memory?
Implicit memory ("Knowing how") and Explicit memory ("Knowing what")
92
What is episodic memory?
Personal recollections of experiences.
93
What is semantic memory?
General knowledge and facts.
94
What is procedural memory?
Memory for skills and actions (e.g., riding a bike)
95
What is proactive interference?
Older memories interfere with new memories ("old messes with the new")
96
What is retroactive interference?
Newer memories interfere with older memories ("new messes with the old")
97
Why is memory not always accurate?
It is reconstructive and influenced by current mood, prior experiences, and wording.
98
What did Loftus' research show about reconstructive memory?
Memory can be influenced by language used in questioning, affecting recall accuracy (e.g., "smashed" vs. "bumped" in car accident studies).
99
What is retrograde amnesia?
The inability to remember events before brain trauma
100
What is anterograde amnesia?
The inability to form new memories after brain trauma
101
What causes Alzheimer's disease?
Progressive neurodegeneration due to plaques and tangles in the brain
102
What are the key characteristics of long-term memory?
Long-term memory has a large capacity and can last for a long duration. Forgetting occurs through decay (lack of use) or interference.
103
How is forgetting in LTM similar to forgetting in short-term memory (STM)?
Forgetting occurs through decay and interference, but in LTM, it happens on a much longer timescale.
104
What is the goal of encoding for LTM?
To form durable memories that are less likely to decay or suffer interference and better support new learning.
105
According to Craik’s Levels-of-Processing Theory, how does the depth of processing affect memory formation?
Deeper, more meaningful processing leads to better long-term memory retention compared to shallow processing.
106
What were the three types of encoding tested in Hyde & Jenkins (1969)?
**Visual:** Is the word in uppercase or lowercase? - **Phonemic:** Does the word rhyme with "log"? - **Semantic:** How pleasant is the word? (Deepest encoding, leading to best recall)
107
What is the spacing effect, and what did Bahrick & Phelps (1987) discover about it?
The spacing effect suggests that distributed study sessions lead to better retention than cramming. Bahrick & Phelps found that students who studied Spanish vocabulary with 30-day gaps between sessions had 2.5 times better retention after 8 years than those who studied daily
108
What is encoding specificity, and how did Godden & Baddeley (1975) demonstrate it?
Encoding specificity means memory is better recalled in the same context where it was learned. Godden & Baddeley showed that divers remembered information better when tested in the same environment where they learned it (land vs. underwater).
109
What are the two main types of retrieval?
**Recognition:** Identifying learned material with cues (e.g., multiple-choice exams). - **Recall:** Producing learned material without cues (e.g., essay exams)
110
What is the retrieval practice effect (testing effect), and how does it impact memory?
Retrieval practice (actively recalling information) improves memory retention, as shown by Roediger & Karpicke (2006).
111
What are some common mnemonic strategies?
**Categorical clustering:** Organizing information into groups. - **Imagery:** Associating words with mental images. - **Acronyms:** Using letters to represent words (e.g., ROY G BIV). - **Acrostics:** Creating sentences where each word represents something (e.g., “Every Good Boy Does Fine” for musical notes EGBDF)
112
What are the five key properties of human language?
Communicative, arbitrarily symbolic, structured at multiple levels, capable of producing novel utterances, and dynamic.
113
What does it mean for language to be arbitrarily symbolic?
Words have no inherent connection to their meaning (e.g., "cat" is just a label for a feline).
114
What are phonemes?
Single speech sounds that have no meaning (e.g., /v/, /f/, /s/).
115
What are morphemes?
The smallest meaningful units of language, such as words, prefixes, and suffixes.
116
How does syntax affect meaning?
The organization of words changes the meaning of a sentence (e.g., “Dog bites man” vs. “Man bites dog”).
117
What is the difference between surface structure and deep structure in syntax?
Surface structure is how a sentence is worded, while deep structure represents its underlying meaning.
118
What does the strong version of the Whorfian hypothesis claim?
Language determines thought, implying there is no universal reality beyond language.
119
What evidence is cited in support of the Whorfian hypothesis?
Examples include Eskimo words for snow, color perception (Russian distinction between light blue and dark blue), and euphemisms.
120
What is an example of a euphemism?
Passed away” instead of “died.”
121
What is the cooperative principle in conversation?
People follow unwritten rules to make conversations coherent and meaningful.
122
What are Grice’s four maxims of conversation?
**Quantity:** Provide the right amount of information. - **Quality:** Be truthful. - **Relation:** Be relevant. - **Manner:** Be clear and orderly.
123
What is the relationship between language and cognition?
Thought influences language abilities, and language exists at the intersection of cognition and social interaction.
124
How does Wechsler define intelligence?
The global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.
125
What are Spearman’s two types of intelligence?
**Fluid intelligence**: ability to tackle new/unfamiliar problems (aptitude tests) - **Crystallized intelligence**: accumulated knowledge (achievement tests)
126
What are Sternberg’s three types of intelligence?
1. **Analytical** – “book smarts”; relates to school performance 2. **Creative** – solving novel problems; thinking outside the box 3. **Practical** – “street smarts”; real-life problem-solving
127
What are some factors that influence intelligence?
Genes, early childhood nutrition, prenatal environment, years of education, and socioeconomic status.
128
What is the WAIS and who developed it?
The **Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale**, developed by David Wechsler, is a widely used intelligence test for adults.
129
What are the four indices of the WAIS-IV?
1. Verbal Comprehension 2. Working Memory 3. Perceptual Organization 4. Processing Speed
130
What is the average IQ and what range includes 68% of the population?
Mean = 100; 68% fall between **85–115**
131
What IQ score generally indicates intellectual disability?
Below 70, **but functional impairments must also be present** (per DSM-5).
132
What is the Flynn Effect?
The observed **rise in average IQ scores** over generations, possibly due to better nutrition, education, and fewer infectious diseases.
133
Are SAT/ACT tests the same as IQ tests?
No, but they are **highly correlated** with IQ and can predict college GPA. Each has a **margin of error** and doesn’t capture full intelligence.
134
What is the Pygmalion Effect?
The phenomenon where **teacher expectations** about a student’s IQ can affect the student’s performance (Rosenthal & Jacobsen study, 1968).

Elementary Psych (3 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions