Unit 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What are some differences between mind and brain?
A
Brain: physical mass of tissue
Mind: Thoughts, feelings, and ideas
2
Q
According to Freud, what role does the unconscious mind play in our actions and subjective experiences?
A
our behavior and subjective experience is influenced by unconscious forces, which are outside of our conscious awareness
3
Q
What is a functionalist way to view thoughts?
A
Thoughts are like a river, they conform to the situation at hand
4
Q
What is the function of the cerebral cortex, and why is it wrinkly?
A
The cerebral cortex is responsible for higher cognitive functions, including perception, thought, memory, and voluntary movement. It is wrinkly to increase surface area, allowing for more neurons and greater processing power.
5
Q
Which lobe of the brain is primarily responsible for vision?
A
The occipital lobe is responsible for vision and visual perception.
6
Q
What are the main functions of the frontal lobe?
A
The frontal lobe is involved in speech production, movement, complex thinking, and aspects of personality.
7
Q
Which brain lobe is involved in touch perception and spatial awareness?
A
The parietal lobe is responsible for touch perception and spatial awareness.
8
Q
What are the two main structures of the limbic system, and what do they do?
A
The amygdala is involved in emotion processing, and the hippocampus is involved in learning and memory.
9
Q
Which brain structure is responsible for coordinating normal movement?
A
The basal ganglia is responsible for normal movement.
10
Q
What role does the hippocampus play in memory?
A
The hippocampus is critical for learning and memory, particularly in forming new memories.
11
Q
How does the amygdala contribute to behavior?
A
The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression.
12
Q
What is the primary function of the midbrain?
A
The midbrain is involved in processing auditory and visual information.
13
Q
Which brain division is responsible for survival functions?
A
The hindbrain, which includes structures like the cerebellum, is responsible for essential survival functions.
14
Q
What is the corpus callosum, and what is its function?
A
The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.
15
Q
What is the difference between the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
A
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS includes all the nerves outside the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body.
16
Q
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system, and how do they differ?
A
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for fight or flight, while the parasympathetic nervous system promotes rest and digestion.
17
Q
How does the somatosensory homunculus relate to brain function?
A
It is an ordered map of the body’s sensory input in the parietal cortex, where some body parts (like hands and lips) have more cortical area devoted to them due to their sensitivity.
18
Q
What is brain plasticity, and how does it manifest after amputation?
A
Brain plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to change and adapt. After amputation, the brain may reorganize itself, sometimes leading to phantom limb sensations.
19
Q
What is the Lock and Key Model in neurotransmission?
A
It refers to how neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors, leading to either depolarization (excitation) or hyperpolarization (inhibition).
20
Q
How does glutamate affect neuronal activity?
A
It is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.
21
Q
How does GABA function in the brain?
A
It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps regulate anxiety and prevents over-excitation.
22
Q
What neurotransmitter is linked to both depression and LSD effects?
A
Serotonin.
23
Q
What role does dopamine play in Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia?
A
Low dopamine is linked to Parkinson’s disease, while excessive dopamine is associated with schizophrenia.
24
Q
What are the main research methods used to study brain function?
A
Neuropsychological methodology, psychopharmacology, single-cell recording, EEG, MEG, TMS, fMRI.
25
How does EEG measure brain activity?
It records electrical activity from the scalp, capturing voltage fluctuations from neuronal activity.
26
What is the difference between single-unit recording and EEG?
Single-unit recording captures activity from individual neurons, while EEG records the summed activity of many neurons.
27
What are event-related potentials (ERPs)?
Specific patterns of EEG activity that occur in response to a stimulus.
28
What are the methodological dimensions to consider in neuroscience research?
Species, invasiveness, spatial resolution, temporal resolution, physiological basis, and cost.
29
What is homeostasis, and how does it relate to motivation?
Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a stable internal environment despite external changes. It relates to motivation because deviations from homeostasis create drives, which motivate behavior to restore balance (e.g., feeling thirsty motivates drinking water).
30
How do deviations from homeostasis create drives?
When the body detects an imbalance (e.g., low blood sugar, high body temperature), it generates a drive (e.g., hunger, thirst) to motivate behavior that restores balance.
31
What role does the hypothalamus play in motivated behaviors?
The hypothalamus regulates essential drives such as hunger, thirst, temperature regulation, and sexual behavior. It acts as a control center by responding to internal signals and initiating appropriate behaviors.
32
How does the 'hot cat' experiment demonstrate the hypothalamus' role in thermoregulation?
Researchers warmed a cat's hypothalamus, and it reacted as if it were hot by panting and seeking cooler conditions, even though the external temperature was normal. This showed that the hypothalamus controls temperature-related behaviors.
33
What is the body weight set point, and how does it influence metabolism?
The body weight set point is a weight range the body defends by adjusting metabolism and hunger signals. If caloric intake decreases, metabolism slows to conserve energy, and if caloric intake increases, metabolism speeds up to maintain the set point.
34
How does the Dual-Center Theory explain hunger and satiety?
The Dual-Center Theory suggests that the hypothalamus has two centers: the lateral hypothalamus (hunger center) stimulates eating, while the ventromedial hypothalamus (satiety center) signals fullness and stops eating.
35
What happens when the lateral hypothalamus is lesioned? What about the ventromedial hypothalamus?
A lesion to the lateral hypothalamus causes a loss of appetite, leading to starvation, while a lesion to the ventromedial hypothalamus causes excessive eating and weight gain.
36
What is the 'toxic food environment' hypothesis?
The toxic food environment hypothesis suggests that the modern food industry promotes overeating by making highly processed, calorie-dense foods easily accessible and affordable.
37
How does stress influence overeating behavior?
Stress can increase cravings for high-fat, high-sugar foods due to the release of cortisol, which affects appetite and food reward systems in the brain.
38
What are the different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Physiological needs: Basic survival needs (food, water, sleep).
Safety needs: Protection and stability (shelter, financial security).
Belongingness and love needs: Social connections (friendship, family, relationships).
Esteem needs: Recognition and self-worth (achievement, respect).
Self-actualization: Personal growth and fulfilling potential.
Self-transcendence: Going beyond oneself, often through spirituality or altruism.
39
What is the difference between a drive and an instinct?
- Instincts are genetically endowed behaviors while drives arise from deviations from homeostasis that create psychological and biological tension.
40
3. **What is the drive-reduction theory?**
This theory suggests that motivated behavior serves to reduce internal drives such as hunger or thirst
41
4. **What is the function of the pain matrix?**
It consists of brain regions that process different types of pain helping to motivate behavior to lessen or terminate pain
42
5. **How does the escape-from-self hypothesis explain nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)?**
It suggests that NSSI shifts attention from broad concerns to the immediate present reducing overall levels of psychological pain
43
7. **How do the brain regions activated by “wanting” differ from those activated by “liking”?**
“Wanting” (anticipation of pleasure) activates different brain regions than “liking” (receipt of pleasure).
44
13. **What is the thrifty gene hypothesis and how does it relate to obesity?
It suggests that evolutionary adaptations favored fat storage making obesity more likely in modern enviornments with abundant food.
45
14. **How do twin studies help explain the physiological and psychological determinants of obesity?**
They show that genetics play a strong role in body weight as separated twins tend to have similar weights
46
15. **What are the four stages of the human sexual response cycle?**
Excitement → Plateau → Orgasm → Resolution
47
16. **How do men and women differ in their sexual response patterns?**
Women tend to be more variable in response time but can remain aroused longer and experience multiple orgasms.
48
17. **What factors influence sexual arousal in males versus females?**
Males respond more to visual cues and explicit imagery while females respond more to touch
49
18. **What does Bem’s “Exotic Becomes Erotic” theory propose about sexual orientation?**
Childhood temperament influences preferences making same-sex peers feel "exotic"
50
19. **What are the two primary sources of the motive to belong?**
Avoiding loneliness and seeking social benefits.
51
20. **How do mastery and performance orientations differ in achievement motivation?**
Mastery orientation focuses on learning and improvement while performance orientation focuses on avoiding failure.
52
22. **What are Dweck’s seven psychological needs?**
Three basic needs (predictability, competence, and relatedness) and four compound needs (control, achievement, self-coherence, and recognition).
53
What are emotions, and how do they differ from moods and temperament?
Emotions are short-lived mental states associated with evaluating experiences. They differ from moods, which are longer-lasting and weaker, and temperament/personality, which are more chronic general dispositions.
54
What are the three components of emotions?
o Behavioral displays (e.g., facial expressions, body language)
o Physiological responses (e.g., fight or flight, rest and digest)
o Subjective feelings and thoughts (e.g., cognitive labels of emotions)
55
Describe the James-Lange Theory of Emotion. What is an example?
The James-Lange theory states that emotions result from awareness of physiological responses to environmental stimuli.
Ex. "I'm afraid because my heart is pounding."
56
How does the Cannon-Bard Theory differ from the James-Lange Theory?
The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that environmental stimuli simultaneously trigger physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion, rather than one causing the other.
57
Explain the Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.
This theory states that emotion is a combination of physiological arousal and a cognitive label.
o Example: If your heart is pounding, you interpret the reason (e.g., excitement vs. fear) based on the situation.
58
How does Lisa Feldman Barrett’s Constructivist Theory differ from traditional models of emotion?
The constructivist theory suggests that emotions are not discrete but rather a combination of psychological and physiological experiences that we interpret, similar to how colors blend on a color wheel.
59
What is the difference between “fight or flight” and “rest and digest” responses?
“Fight or flight” is the body’s response to stress or danger, increasing heart rate and alertness.
o “Rest and digest” is the relaxation response, slowing heart rate and promoting digestion.
60
What are the two main dimensions of emotional experience?
o Arousal (How excited or calm you feel)
o Valence (How positive or negative you feel)
61
How does the concept of “approach orientation” relate to emotions like anger and fear?
o Approach orientation refers to whether an emotion leads someone to move toward or away from something.
o Anger is an approach-oriented emotion (motivates action), while fear is an avoidance-oriented emotion (motivates withdrawal).
62
How does the absence of the amygdala affect Patient SM’s emotional experiences?
She has an impairment in recognizing and experiencing fear.
63
What is learning, and how does experience play a role in it?
Learning is a process based on experience that results in a change in behavior. Experience helps individuals form associations between stimuli and responses.
64
What are the two main types of associative learning?
Classical conditioning** (learning through associations between stimuli) and **operant conditioning** (learning through consequences of behavior).
65
What is the difference between habituation and sensitization?
Habituation** occurs when we become less responsive to a repeated, irrelevant stimulus.
- **Sensitization** occurs when we become more responsive to a stimulus, usually one that is potentially harmful.
66
What is classical conditioning, and how does it differ from operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning is a passive form of learning in which an involuntary response becomes associated with a stimulus.
- Operant conditioning is an active form of learning where behavior is shaped by consequences (rewards or punishments).
67
In Pavlov’s experiment, what were the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR)?
- **UCS**: Food
- **UCR**: Salivation in response to food
- **CS**: Bell (after conditioning)
- **CR**: Salivation in response to the bell
68
What is stimulus generalization, and how is it different from stimulus discrimination?
- **Generalization**: Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.
- **Discrimination**: Learning to distinguish between similar stimuli and only responding to the specific conditioned stimulus.
69
What is the Garcia Effect, and how does it relate to conditioned taste aversion?
The Garcia Effect refers to the strong association between food and illness, where even one bad experience can lead to a lasting aversion to that food.
70
What happened in the Little Albert study, and what does it reveal about classical conditioning in humans?
- In this study, a baby (Albert) was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise (UCS). He later generalized this fear to other similar objects.
- This study demonstrated that emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning.
71
How can classical conditioning contribute to PTSD?
In PTSD, neutral stimuli (e.g., sounds, sights) that were present during a traumatic event become conditioned stimuli that trigger fear responses long after the event has ended.
72
Why is the amygdala important in classical conditioning of fear?
The amygdala plays a crucial role in processing fear-related stimuli and forming associations between neutral stimuli and fear responses.
73
How does blocking demonstrate that association alone is not enough for learning?
Blocking occurs when a stimulus fails to become a conditioned stimulus because it does not add any new predictive value beyond an already established conditioned stimulus. This suggests that learning depends on the predictive power of a stimulus, not just its association with an unconditioned stimulus.
74
What is conditioned taste aversion, and why is it biologically significant?
Conditioned taste aversion occurs when an individual avoids a particular food after a single negative experience (e.g., getting sick after eating it).
- It is biologically significant because it helps organisms avoid potentially harmful substances.
75
What is operant conditioning?
Learned association between behavior and consequences. Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if followed by punishment.
76
What is reinforcement?
A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
77
How does positive reinforcement work? Give an example.
Adding something desirable to increase behavior. Example: Getting praise for cleaning your room.
78
How does negative reinforcement work? Give an example.
Removing something undesirable to increase behavior. Example: Turning off an alarm clock to stop the noise.
79
What is punishment?
A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
80
How does positive punishment work? Give an example.
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. Example: Receiving a parking ticket for illegal parking.
81
How does negative punishment work? Give an example.
Removing something desirable to decrease behavior. Example: Taking away a child’s toy after bad behavior.
82
What is a discriminative stimulus?
A stimulus that signals the presence of certain reinforcement or punishment contingencies.
83
How does a discriminative stimulus influence behavior?
It tells the subject that a particular behavior will be rewarded or punished in that specific context.
84
Can you provide an example of a discriminative stimulus in real life?
A traffic light: Green signals that driving forward will not be punished; red signals stopping is necessary to avoid punishment.
85
What is shaping in learning?
A process where reinforcement is given for behaviors that gradually resemble the desired behavior.
86
How does shaping help train animals or humans?
It reinforces small steps toward a complex behavior, making learning more manageable. It helps guide the subject step-by-step toward the target behavior by reinforcing closer approximations.
87
What is observational learning?
Learning by watching and imitating the behavior of others.
88
Who conducted the Bobo Doll Experiment and what were the results?
Albert Bandura; children who watched aggressive adults were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors.
89
What is vicarious conditioning?
Learning from observing the consequences of another person’s actions.
90
How does the Bobo Doll experiment demonstrate observational learning?
It showed that children could learn aggression by watching adults behave aggressively, even without direct reinforcement.
91
What was the key finding of Thorndike’s “cat in the box” experiment?
The experiment demonstrated that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, forming the basis of the *law of effect*.
92
How does the law of effect explain learning?
It states that behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened.
93
What is an operant behavior?
Any behavior that has an observable effect on the environment.
94
How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?
Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences (reinforcement or punishment), while classical conditioning involves associating two stimuli.
95
What is reinforcement in operant conditioning?
A process that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
96
How does positive reinforcement differ from negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase behavior, while negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.
97
How does punishment differ from reinforcement?
Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior, whereas reinforcement increases it.
98
What is positive punishment? Provide an example.
Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., getting a speeding ticket to reduce reckless driving).
99
What is negative punishment? Provide an example.
Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., losing phone privileges for missing curfew).
100
Why might punishment be less effective than reinforcement?
Punishment may suppress behavior temporarily but does not teach alternative behaviors; reinforcement encourages learning more effectively.
101
What are the two main types of reinforcement schedules?
Ratio schedules* (based on the number of responses) and *interval schedules* (based on time elapsed).
102
How does a fixed ratio schedule work? Give an example.
Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses (e.g., earning a bonus after selling five products).
103
How does a variable ratio schedule work? Why is it harder to extinguish?
Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (e.g., slot machines). It is hard to extinguish because the next reward is unpredictable.
104
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
A process where reinforcement is given for successive approximations of a desired behavior.
105
How is shaping used in training animals or teaching new behaviors?
Trainers reward small steps toward the final desired behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to roll over by reinforcing lying down first).
