unit 2 Flashcards
stimulation of your senses
sensation
converting outside world into neural impulses, has an absolute threshold
transduction
process interpreting, organizing, and experiencing sensation
perception
building up perception piece by piece, using parts, slow, effortful, guarunteed
bottom up processing
useful without all the info, educated inference
top down processing
constant sensation may not be perceived due to
sensory adaptation
sensation without perception, transduction occurs
inattentional blindness
number of waves that pass a given point in a period of time, in hertz
frequency
red waves have
longer wavelength and shorter frequency
light visible to humans
visible spectrum (small portion of electromagnetic spectrum)
all electromagnetic radiation
electromagnetic spectrum
different wavelengths are associate with perception of different
colors
frequency of sound wave is associated with perception of the sounds
pitch
higher frequency means
higher pitch
loudness is measured in decibels and is
the height of a wave (amplitude)
light enters eye and rods and cones convert the light into neural signals
transduction
term for building perception from basic units of input
bottom up
number of waves that pass a given point in a period of time
frequency
protects the eye from debris
cornea
color part of eye, muscle that protects the inner eye from excessive light and controls pupil size
iris
hollow center of iris, allows light to enter
pupil
focuses back towards retina and fovea
lens
where transduction occurs, cones and rods
retina
dense collection of cones, color fission
fovea
where axons from photoreceptors exit the eye and transmit a signal
optic nerve
where axons leave there is a
blindspot
trasduce light into neural signals
photoreceptors
movement, low light, peripheral vission
rods
detailed color vision, 3 types
cones
where visual info enters brain, pathway to occipital lobe
optic chiasm
red, green, and blue combine to produce all colors on a retina level, cones are on or off
trichromatic theory
cones are linked in opposing pairs, cognitive based color vision
opponent process theory
retinal image
2D
ability to perceive a 3D relationship
depth percepton
uses 2 eyes
binocular depth cues
each eye gets different images and infers
binocular disparity
linear perspective, uses one eye
monocular depth cues
perceive depth in 2D with monocular cues, parallel lines converge
linear perspective
in basilar membrane, modified dendrites
hair cells
channels and directs sound waves into the ear
pinna
sound waves bounce down this
auditory canal
sound waves hit and make vibrate
tympanic membrane
changes the type of vibration, moves the oval window in and out
ossicles (malleus incus stapes)
fluid is pushed through this
cochlea
fluid passes through
basilar membrane and hair cells
localizing sounds involves both
monaural and binaural cues
between ear level and timing differences
interaural level and timing difference
born without hearing
congenital deafness
trouble delivering sounds to cochlea
conductive hearing loss
caused by many factors such as aging, head trauma, infections, the env
sensorineural
four types of taste receptors
sweet, salty, sour, bitter
how taste works
groupings of taste receptor cells with hair like extensions that protude into taste bud central pore
hair like parts that extend from the olfactory bulb into the mucous membrane of nasal cavity
olfactory receptors
bulb like structure at the tip of frontal lobe where olfactory nerves begin
olfactory bulb
chemical messages sent by another individual
pheremones
respond to pressure and lower frequency vibrations
meissners corpuscles
detect transient pressure and higher freq vibrations
pacinanian corpsucles
respond to light pressure
merkels disks
detect skin stretch
ruffini corpuscles
brain creates a perception that is more than the sum of available sensory info
gestalt
segment into figure and background
figure ground
see things close together differently, groupings
proximity
perceive through groupings
similarity
perceive shapes as smooth, continuous
continuity
perceive a complete circle and rectangle, not parts
closure
if no rods
struggle to detect movement, peripheral movement
relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience
learning
motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment, lower level brain areas/spinal cord
reflexes
innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, sexual reproduction, migration, higher level brain area
instincts
occurs when an organisms makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together
associative learning
process of watching others and then imitating what they do
observational learning
studied digestive system of dogs, discovered the learning process of classical conditioning
pavlov
before, an unconditioned stimulus produces an UR, neutral stimulus does not, during conditioning US presented repeatedly after the NS, after NS alone produces CR, becomes CS
classical conditioning
manipulation occurs before the behavior
classical conditioning
established conditioned stimulus paired with a new neutral stimulus
higher order conditioning
rising curve shows CR quickly getting stronger through repeated pairings of CS and UCS
acquisition
curve decreases, shows CR weakens when only CS present
extinction
CR reappears after a break or pause from conditioning
spontaneous recover
demonstrates CR only to the specific CS
stimulus discrimination
CR stimuli that are similar to CS, fearing anything or all of something
stimulus generalization
learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change, adapt
habituation
used principles of classical conditioning to study human emotion, conducted little albert
John B Watson
little albert experiment
baby exposed to furry white things and loud sound played, taught to fear
response associated with a consequence
operant conditioning
behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are likely to be repeated
law of effect
developed operant conditioning chamber
skinner
increases a behavior
reinforcement
stimulus is added to increase a behavior
positive reinforcement
stimulus is removed to increase a behavior
negative reinforcement
decreases a behavior
punishment
add a stimulus to decrease a behavior
positive punishment
remove a stimulus to decrease a behavior
negative punishment
reward successive approximations of a target behavior, broken down into small achievable steps
shaping
innate reinforcing qualities, don’t need to learn
primary reinforcers
have no inherent value, value is learned and then becomes reinforcing when linked with primary
secondary reinforcers
when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior
continuous reinforcement
the organism does not get reinforced every time, intermittent
partial reinforcement
the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between is set and uncahnging
fixed
the number of responses between reinforcement or amount of time varies
variable
the schedule is based on time between reinforcements
interval
schedule is based on number of responses
ratio
schedule is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rate with little pause, ex = gambling
variable ratio
schedule is predictable and produces a high response rate with short pause
fixed ratio
schedule is unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate
variable interval
schedule yields a scallop shaped response, reflecting pause after reinforcement
fixed interval
some pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for low levels of
norepinephrine
used cognitive maps to navigate through a maze
tolman
mental picture of the layout of a maze
cognitive maze
learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it
latent learning
learn by watching others and then imitating what they do or say
observational learning
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
steps in modeling process
if the model’s behavior was reinforced, more motivated to copy
vicarious reinforcement
if the model behavior was punished, less motivation to copy
vicarious punishment
neurons active when observing
mirror neurons
studied modeling of aggressive and violent behavior, bobo doll used to see how children would model
bandura’s bobo doll experiment
models are not present for learning to occur
symbolic modeling
found that distributed learning is more effective for long term retention
keppel’s experiment
input of info into the memory system
encoding
encoding of words and their meaning, William bousfield, better recall, deeper level of processing
semantic encoding
we have better memory for info especially if we use info that relates to oneself compared to less personal relevance
self reference effect
encoding of images
visual encoding
encoding of sounds, typically language
acoustic
retention of encoded information
storage
getting the info out of memory and back into awareness
retrieval
can be a spectrum or shallow to deep processing, low or high probability of recall
long term memory
information passes through three distinct stages for storage in LTM
atkinson shiffrin model of memory
steps of memory storage
sensory input, sensory memory, short term memory (rehearsal), long term memory
information is processed and stored with little effort, usually without conscious awareness
automatic processing
requires a lot of work and attention to encode that info, example = studying
effortful processing
process of converting effortful controlled processing tasks into automatic processing tasks
automaticity/proceduralization
temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory
short term memory
conscious repetition of info to be remembered
rehearsal
move STM into long term memory
memory consolidation
baddeley and hitch model
proposed model of storage, STM has different forms depending on the type of info received, storing memories like opening files, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop
what we know we know
explicit memory
what we don’t know we know
implicit memory
experienced events
episodic
knowledge and concepts
semantic
skills and actions
procedural
recall, recognition, relearning
three ways to retrieve from LTM
access info without cues
recall
identify info previously learned after encountering it again, involves comparison
recognition
involves learning info previously learned
relearning
searched for engram (neurons that serve as physical representation of memory)
lashley
if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over memory function
equipotentiality hypothesis
entire brain is
involved with memory
distribute fragile recent memories from hippocampus to neocortex
during sleep
biological basis of memory, studied the synapse and its role in the flow of info through neural circuits needed to store memories
eric kandel
where fear memories and emotional memories are
amygdala
declarative (explicit), episodic, recognition memory (projects info to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connects them with other memories, where memory consolidation is
hippocampus
transferring new learning to long term memory
memory consolidation
procedural memories, ex playing piano
cerebellum
remembering semantic tasks, STM
prefrontal cortex
memory consolidation occurs through repeated neuron activity,
repeated use means less activation is needed for same response (LTP or Hebbian learning)
strong emotional experiences form strong memories
arousal theory
loss of long term memory from physical trauma or disease
amnesia
cannot remember or encode new info
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory for events prior to trauma
retrograde amnesia
if you lose both hippocampi
can create implicit memories (procedural, motor skills, due to cerebellum)
how we process and retain info, recall better for semantic than perceptual tasks
prefrontal cortex
retrieval is a
reconstructive process, when we retrieve, we alter and modify
misinformation from external forces leads to creation of false memories
suggestibility
developed misinformation (paradigm) effect
loftus
unconscious forgetting of traumatic memories, began with freud, controversial
repression
recall of false autobiographical memories
false memory syndrome
loss of info from LTM
forgetting
sometimes memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins
encoding failure
decay of memory over time
transcience
extended LT need retrieval cue, no decay, unlimited LTM
no decay
lack of attention causes memory failure
absentmindedness
use it or lose it, LTM limited
memory decay
temporarily blocked memories
blocking
remembered correctly but source remembered incorrectly
misattribution
false memories incorporated
suggestibility
distorted by beliefs
bias
inability to forget undesirable memories
persistence
conscious memory of a previous personal experience
episodic memory
includes racial and gender bias
stereotypical bias
involves enhancing our memories of the past (making us seem better)
egocentric bias
the tendency to think an outcome was inevitable
hindsight bias
old information hinders recall of new info
proactive interference
newly learned info hinders recall of old info
retroactive interference
conscious repetition of info to be remembered
rehearsal
organize info into manageable chunks
chunking
think about the meaning of new info and its relationship to knowledge already stored in memory
elaborative rehearsal
memory techniques that enhance encoding and storage
mnemonic devices
