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AP Bio > Unit #2 > Flashcards

Unit #2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

All organisms are made of…

A

cells

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2
Q

All cells are related because…

A

they descended from earlier cells

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3
Q

What are the two basic structural and functional types of cells?

A

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic

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4
Q

What are the only domains that consist of prokaryotic cells?

A

Bacteria and Archaea

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5
Q

What are the four basic features of all cells?

A

Plasma membrane
Semifluid substance called cytosol
Chromosomes (carry genes)
Ribosomes (make proteins)

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6
Q

Prokaryotic cells are characterized by…

A

No nucleus
DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
No membrane-bound organelles
Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

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7
Q

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by…

A

Having DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
Membrane-bound organelles
Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus

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8
Q

Plasma membrane

A

A selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell (lets things in and out)

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9
Q

Ribosomes uses the information…

A

from the DNA to make proteins

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10
Q

Nucleus

A

Contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most noticeable organelle

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11
Q

Nuclear envelope

A

Encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm

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12
Q

Nuclear lamina

A

Lines the envelope; composed of proteins and maintains the shape of the nucleus

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13
Q

Chromosomes

A

Thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells

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14
Q

Chromatins

A

Genetic material or a macromolecule that contains DNA, RNA, and proteins which make up chromesomes

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15
Q

Chromatin condenses…

A

to form chromatids (discrete chromosomes) as a cell prepares to divide

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16
Q

Nucleolus

A

Located within the nucleus and is where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs

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17
Q

Ribosomes

A

Complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein

Carries out protein synthesis in the cytosol and on the outside of the ER or the nuclear envelope

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18
Q

Endomembrane system consists of…

A

Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Plasma membrane

Connected or continuous by the transfer of vesicles

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19
Q

ER (Endoplasmic reticulum)

A

Network of membranes inside a cell by which proteins and other molecules move through

Accounts for more than half of the total membrane in eukaryotic cells

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20
Q

Smooth ER & Rough ER…

A

Smooth ER lacks ribosomes
Rough ER’s surface contains ribosomes

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21
Q

What does the smooth ER do?

A

Synthesizes lipids
Metabolizes (chemically changes) carbohydrates
Detoxifies drugs and poisons
Stores calcium ions

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22
Q

The rough ER…

A

Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins
Distributes transports vesicles
Is a membrane factory for the cell

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23
Q

Glycoproteins

A

Consists of proteins that have carbohydrate chains known as oglisaccharides (type of sugar)

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24
Q

Transport vesicles

A

Help move materials (proteins and other molecules) across the cell

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25
Q

Lysosome

A

A membrane-bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes (breaks down proteins, nucleic acids, carbs and lipids.) The enzymes work best in acidic environments. The enzymes and the membranes are made by the Rough ER then they are sent to the Golgi apparatus for further processing

Think of it as the janitor of the cell

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26
Q

Phagocytosis

A

The process where a phagocyte (a type of white blood cell), ingests or engulfs another cell (bacteria, etc.) This forms a food vacuole and soon afterwards a lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules

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27
Q

Vacuoles

A

Large vesicles (fluid lined with a membrane) derived from the ER and Golgi apparatus

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28
Q

Food vacuoles

A

Formed by phagocytosis

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29
Q

Contractile vacuoles

A

Pumps excess water out of the cell

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30
Q

Central vacuoles

A

Holds organic compounds and water

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31
Q

Mitochondria

A

The site where cellular respiration occurs. Cellular respiration is a metabolic process where oxygen is used to generate ATP

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32
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Sites of photosynthesis

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33
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Small, membrane-closed organelle (lipid bilayer) which contains a crystalloid core (sometimes.) The core carries out biochemical reactions. Produces hydrogen peroxide and converts it into water

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34
Q

Endosymbiont theory

A

Suggests that an early ancestor of eukaryotes an oxygen-using nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell which the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell, becoming an endosymbiotic (two organisms living inside one another.) Both of these organisms evolved into mitochondria. One of these cells took up a photosynthetic prokaryote which evolved into a chloroplast

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35
Q

Mitochondria

A

Nearly in all cells. Has a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae. The intermembrane that’s folded creates two spcaes/compartments, one being the intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix. Cristae has a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP

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36
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Contains the green pigment chlorophyll, enzymes and other function that are in photosynthesis. Is a plastid

The chloroplast has thylakoids which are the sacs that are stacked to form a granum. It has stroma which is the internal fluid

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37
Q

Plastids

A

Group of plant organelles

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38
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. Organizes the cell’s structures and activities. It is made of three types of molecular structures called

Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments

39
Q

Cell wall

A

Extracellular structure that protects the plant cell, maintains its shape and prevents excessive uptake of water. Made up of cellulose fibers and embedded in other polysaccharides and proteins

40
Q

What are the multiple layers of the cell walls?

A

Primary cell wall: Thin and flexible

Middle lamella: Thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells

Secondary cell wall (some cells have this): Between plasma membrane and the primary cell wall

41
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

Channels between adjacent cells

42
Q

Selective permeability

A

Some substances are allowed to cross the membrane more easily than others

43
Q

Amphipathic

A

A compound containing polar and nonpolar portions in its structure

Phospholipids are this (they have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions)

44
Q

Fluid mosaic model

A

States that a membrane is a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of various proteins embedded in it

45
Q

As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a … state to a … state

A

Fluid to solid

46
Q

Membranes rich in … fatty acids are more fluid than those rich in … fatty acids

A

Unsaturated, saturated. Membranes must be fluid to work properly and are as fluid as salad oil

47
Q

Peripheral proteins

A

Proteins bounded to the surface of the membrane

48
Q

Integral proteins

A

Proteins that go through the hydrophobic core of the membrane

49
Q

What are the six major functions of membrane proteins?

A

Transport
Enzymatic activity
Signal transduction
Cell-cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)

50
Q

Membrane carbohydrates may be covalently bonded to…

A

Lipids (glycolipids) and/or to proteins (glycoproteins)

51
Q

Transport proteins

A

Allows passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane

Includes channel proteins and carrier proteins

52
Q

Aquaporins

A

Channel proteins which facilitate (makes something easier) the passage of water

53
Q

Channel proteins

A

Allows the passage of ions and some molecules passively. It’s like a gate

54
Q

Carrier proteins

A

Binds specific molecules to be transported to one side of the membrane

55
Q

Diffusion

A

The tendency for molecules to spread out evenly into available space

56
Q

Concentration gradient

A

The gradual change in concentration of particles/solutes in a solution

57
Q

Passive transport

A

The diffusion across a biological membrane; no energy required

58
Q

Osmosis

A

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

59
Q

Tonicity

A

The ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

60
Q

Isotonic solution

A

Solute concentration is the same as that inside the cell (equal/balance)

61
Q

Hypertonic solution

A

Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water

62
Q

Hypotonic solution

A

Solute concentration is lesser than that inside the cell; cell gains water

63
Q

Osmoregulation

A

The regulation of the water balance in the body of an organism; mains homeostasis

64
Q

Turgid

A

Firm

Occurs when a plant cell in a hypotonic solution swells until the wall opposes uptake which becomes firms

Plant cells need to be in a hypotonic solution

65
Q

Flaccid

A

Limp

Occurs when a plant cell and its surroundings are isotonic, the cell becomes limp

66
Q

In a … environment, plant cells lose water

A

hypertonic

67
Q

Plasmolysis

A

In a hypertonic environment, the cell loses water and the membrane pulls away from the cell wall which causes the plant to wilt (lethal)

68
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across the plasma membrane

69
Q

Ion channels

A

Facilitate the diffusion of ions

70
Q

Gated channels

A

Opens or/and closes in response to a stimulus (is also an ion channel)

71
Q

Active transport

A

Moves substances against their concentration gradients (requires energy)

72
Q

Sodium-potassium pump

A

One type of active transport system

73
Q

Membrane potential

A

Voltage difference across a membrane

Voltage is created by differences in the distribution of positive and negative ions across a membrane

74
Q

Electrochemical gradient

A

Two combined forces that drive the diffusion across a membrane

Chemical force (the ion’s concentration gradient)
Electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ion’s movement)

75
Q

Electrogenic pump

A

A transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane

76
Q

Proton pump

A

An integral membrane protein pump that builds up a proton gradient across a biological membrane

77
Q

Cotransport

A

Occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of other substances

78
Q

Exocytosis

A

Transport vesicles migrate to the membrane and fuse with it, releasing their contents outside the cell

Many secretory cells use exocytosis to export their products

79
Q

Endocytosis

A

The cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane. This involves different proteins than exocytosis

There are three types:
Phagocytosis (cellular eating)
Pintocytosis (cellular drinking)
Receptor-mediated endocytosis

80
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Extracellular fluids or particles are ingested by the cell into tiny vesicles

81
Q

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

Binding of ligands to receptors triggers vesicle formation

82
Q

Ligand

A

Any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule

83
Q

Water potential

A

A measure of how likely water is to move from one location (outside the cell) to another (inside the cell)

Water loooves going towards what is negative on the number line

84
Q

Pressure potential

A

Turgor potential or pressure. Pressure exerted on water in a cell

85
Q

Solute potential

A

Negative in plant cell and zero in distilled water

86
Q

Water potential formula

A

Ψ = ΨS + ΨP

87
Q

Solute potential formula

A

Ѱs = -iCRT

-i –> 1 if sugar (glucose or sucrose), 2 if NaCl (don’t forget to multiply whichever number it is by negative!)

C –> Molar concentration
R –> 0 = 0.0831
T –> ALWAYS K (Kelvin)!!! 273 + C degrees

88
Q

A cell with a large amount of rough ERs will perform…

A

Production and secretion of proteins

89
Q

Which two cellular organelles in eukaryotes have both electron transport systems and chemiosmotic mechanisms?

A

Chloroplasts and mitochondria

90
Q

An investigator wants to understand whether a newly found membrane protein is involved in membrane transport of a certain particle. Which investigation will help determine whether the new membrane protein is a channel protein involved in membrane transport?

A

Add more of the proteins to the plasma membrane and measure the rate of the particle movement.

91
Q

What process is most likely to occur as a result of an animal cell receiving a signal to initiate apoptosis?

A

Lysosomes will release digestive enzymes into the cytosol.

92
Q

Describe the effect on water transport across the cell membrane if aquaporin ceases to function

A

Water molecules will still be able to move across the cell membrane but at a slower rate.

93
Q

If ATP breakdown (hydrolysis) is inhibited, what type of movement across cell membranes is also inhibited?

A

Passage of a solute against its concentration gradient

94
Q

What evolutionary advantage does compartmentalization of core metabolic processes offer eukaryotes?

A

Evolution of a nucleus in eukaryotes separates the processes of transcription and translation and they can be regulated separately.

AP Bio (3 decks)

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