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PSY 110 > UNIT 2 > Flashcards

UNIT 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience.

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2
Q

Behaviorism

A

A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping.

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3
Q

Associative Learning

A

Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events.

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4
Q

Conditioning

A

The process of learning these associations.

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5
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Organisms learn the association between 2 stimuli.

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6
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

Organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence.

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7
Q

Observational Learning

A

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another’s behavior.

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8
Q

Reflexes

A

automatic stimulus response connections.

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9
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus

A

A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning.

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10
Q

Conditioned Response

A

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus pairing.

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11
Q

Unconditioned Response

A

An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

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12
Q

Conditioned Stimulus

A

A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

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13
Q

Acquisition

A

The initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired.

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14
Q

Contiguity

A

The conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are presented very close together in time.

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15
Q

Contingency

A

The conditioned stimulus must not only precede the Unconditioned stimulus closely in time, must serve as a reliable indicator that the unconditioned stimulus is on its way.

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16
Q

Generalization (Classical Conditioning)

A

The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.

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17
Q

Discrimination (Classical Conditioning)

A

The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others.

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18
Q

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

A

The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.

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19
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.

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20
Q

Counterconditioning

A

A classical conditioning procedure for changing a relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.

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21
Q

Aversive Conditioning

A

A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus.

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22
Q

Immunosuppression

A

A decrease in the production of antibodies.

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23
Q

Taste Aversion

A

A special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea.

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24
Q

Respondent Behavior

A

Behavior that occurs in automatic response to a stimulus, and later to a conditioned stimulus.

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25
Q

Law Of Effect

A

Thorndike’s law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

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26
Q

Shaping

A

Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior.

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27
Q

Reinforcement

A

The process by which a stimulus or an event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again.

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28
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior.

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29
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior.

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30
Q

Avoidance Learning

A

An organism’s learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response.

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31
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

Through experience with unavoidable aversive stimuli, an organism learns that it has no control over negative outcomes.

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32
Q

Primary Reinforcer

A

A reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism’s part to make it pleasurable.

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33
Q

Secondary Reinforcer

A

A reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism’s experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer.

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34
Q

Generalization (Operant Conditioning)

A

Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.

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35
Q

Discrimination

A

An unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group.

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36
Q

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

A

Decreases in frequency of behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced.

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37
Q

Schedules of reinforcement

A

Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.

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38
Q

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A

Reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.

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39
Q

Variable- Ratio Schedule

A

a system in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis.

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40
Q

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A

Reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed.

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41
Q

Variable-Interval Schedule

A

A timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.

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42
Q

Punishment

A

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

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43
Q

Positive Punishment

A

The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.

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44
Q

Negative Punishment

A

The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.

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45
Q

Delay of Gratification

A

Putting off the pleasure of an immediate reward in order to gain a larger, later reward.

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46
Q

Behavior Modification

A

The Use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.

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47
Q

Retention

A

Remember information

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48
Q

Motor Reproduction

A

Imitating a model’s actions.

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49
Q

Vicarious Reinforcement

A

Seeing a model attain an award for an activity increases the chances that the observer will repeat the behavior.

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50
Q

Vicarious Punishment

A

Seeing the model punished makes the observer less likely to repeat the behavior.

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51
Q

Purposiveness of Behavior

A

The idea that much of behavior is goal-directed.

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52
Q

Latent Learning

A

Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.

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53
Q

Insight Learning

A

A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution.

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54
Q

Instinctive Drift

A

The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning.

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55
Q

Preparedness

A

The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.

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56
Q

Learning Styles

A

People differ in terms of the method of instruction that will be most effective for them.

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57
Q

Health Psychology

A

A subfield of psychology that emphasizes psychology’s role in establishing and maintaining health and preventing and treating illness.

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58
Q

Behavioral Medicine

A

An interdisciplinary field that focuses on developing and integrating behavior biomedical knowledge to promote health and reduce illness. Overlaps with and is sometimes indistinguishable from health psychology.

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59
Q

Health Promotion

A

Helping people change their lifestyle to optimize their health assisting them in achieving balance.

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60
Q

Public Health

A

Concerned with studying health and disease in large populations to guide policymakers.

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61
Q

Health Behaviors

A

Practices that have an impact on physical well being.

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62
Q

Theory of Reasoned Action

A

Theoretical Model Stating that effective change requires individuals to have specific intentions about their behaviors, as well as positive attitudes about a new behavior, and to perceive that their social group looks positively on the new behavior as well.

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63
Q

Theory of Planned Behavior

A

Theoretical model that includes the basic ideas of the theory of reasoned action but adds the person’s perceptions of control over the outcome.

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64
Q

Stages of Change Model

A

Theoretical model describing a 5 step process by which individuals give up bad habits and adopt healthier lifestyles.

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65
Q

Precontemplation

A

Individuals are not yet ready to think about changing and may not be aware that they have a problem that needs to be changed.

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66
Q

Contemplation

A

Individuals acknowledge that they have a problem but may not be yet ready to change.

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67
Q

Preparation

A

Individuals are preparing to take action.

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68
Q

Action

A

Individuals commit to making a behavioral change and enact a plan.

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69
Q

Maintenance

A

Individuals are successful in continuing their behavior change over time.

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70
Q

Relapse

A

A return to former unhealthy patterns.

71
Q

Intrinsic Motivation

A

Doing something because you want to and enjoy it.

72
Q

Extrinsic Motivation

A

Doing something for external rewards.

73
Q

Implementation Intentions

A

Specific strategies for dealing with challenges of making a life change.

74
Q

Social Support

A

Information and feedback from others indicating that one is loved and cared for, esteemed and valued, and included in a network of communication and mutual obligation.

75
Q

Tangible Assistance

A

Family and friends can provide goods and services in stressful circumstances.

76
Q

Information

A

Individuals who extend support can also recommend specific strategies to help the person under stress cope.

77
Q

Emotional Support

A

Friends and family can reassure the stressed person that they are valuable and loved.

78
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome

A

Selye’s term for the common effects of stressful demands on the body, consisting of three stages; alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

79
Q

Alarm

A

A temporary state of shock during which resistance to illness and stress falls below normal limits.

80
Q

Resistance

A

glands throughout the body manufacture different hormones that protect the individual.

81
Q

Exhaustion

A

The wear and tear takes its toll, mental or physical collapse may take place.

82
Q

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

A

The complex set of interactions, among the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal glands that regulate various body processes and control reactions to stressful events.

83
Q

Psychoneuroimmunology

A

A new field of scientific inquiry that explores connections among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system.

84
Q

Type A Behavior Pattern

A

A cluster of characteristics, including being excessively competitive, hard-driven, impatient, and hostile-that is related to a higher incidence of heart disease.

85
Q

Type B Behavior Pattern

A

A cluster of characteristics including being relaxed and easy going, that is related to a lower incidence of heart disease.

86
Q

Type D Behavior Pattern

A

A cluster of characteristics, including being generally distressed, having negative emotions, and being socially inhibited, that is related to adverse cardiovascular outcomes.

87
Q

Health Disparities

A

Refer to often preventable differences in physical functioning and psychological functioning that are experienced by socially disadvantaged groups.

88
Q

Cognitive Appraisal

A

Individuals’ interpretation of the events in their life as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events.

89
Q

Coping

A

Managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life’s problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress,

90
Q

Primary Appraisal

A

Individuals interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that has already occurred, a threat of some future danger, or a challenge to be overcome.

91
Q

Secondary Appraisal

A

People evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can be marshaled to cope with the event.

92
Q

Problem-Focused Coping

A

The coping strategy of squarely facing one’s troubles and trying to solve them.

93
Q

Emotion-Focused Coping

A

The coping strategy that involves responding to the stress that one is feeling, trying to manage one’s emotional reaction, rather than focusing on the root problem itself.

94
Q

Positive Reappraisal

A

Reinterpreting a potentially stressful experience as positive, valuable, or even beneficial.

95
Q

Hardiness

A

A personality trait characterized by a sense of commitment rather than alienation and of control rather than powerlessness, a perception of problems as challenges rather than threats.

96
Q

Stress Management Program

A

A regimen that teaches individuals how to appraise stressful events, how to develop skills for coping with stress, and how to put these skills into use in everyday life.

97
Q

Exercise

A

structured activities whose goal is to improve health.

98
Q

Aerobic Exercise

A

Sustained activity that stimulates heart and lung functioning.

99
Q

Sexually Transmitted Disease

A

An infection that contracted primarily through sexual activity.

100
Q

Memory

A

The retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

101
Q

Encoding

A

The first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage.

102
Q

Divided Attention

A

Concentration on more than one activity at the same time. `

103
Q

Sustained Attention

A

The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time.

104
Q

Executive Attention

A

The ability to plan action, allocate attention to goals, detect errors and compensate for them, monitor progress on tasks and deal with novel or difficult circumstances.

105
Q

Levels of Processing

A

A continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.

106
Q

Shallow

A

Physical and perceptual feature are analyzed.

107
Q

Intermediate

A

Stimulus is recognized and labeled.

108
Q

Deep

A

Semantic, meaningful symbolic characteristics are used.

109
Q

Elaboration

A

The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding.

110
Q

Storage

A

The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory.

111
Q

Atkinson-Shriffrin Theory

A

Theory stating that memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.

112
Q

Sensory Memory

A

Memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses.

113
Q

Short Term Memory

A

Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used to retain it longer.

114
Q

Working Memory

A

A combination of components including short term memory and attention that allow individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks. (Decision making and problem solving)

115
Q

Long Term Memory

A

A relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time.

116
Q

Explicit Memory

A

The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events. Information that can be verbally communicated.

117
Q

Episodic Memory

A

The retention of information about the where, when, and what of life’s happenings.

118
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience.

119
Q

Semantic Memory

A

A person’s knowledge about the world.

120
Q

Procedural Memory

A

Memory of skills.

121
Q

Priming

A

The activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster.

122
Q

Schema

A

A pre-existing mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. Prior encounters with the environment influence our decision making.

123
Q

Script

A

A schema for an event, often containing information about features, people, and typical occurrences.

124
Q

Connectionism

A

The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons.

125
Q

Retrieval

A

The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage

126
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

The tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.

127
Q

Autobiographical Memory

A

A special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person’s recollections of their life experiences.

128
Q

Flashbulb Memory

A

The memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events.

129
Q

Motivated Forgetting

A

Forgetting that occurs when something is so painful anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable.

130
Q

Interference Theory

A

The theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember.

131
Q

Proactive Interference

A

Situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later.

132
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

Situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier.

133
Q

Decay Theory

A

Theory stating that when an individual learns something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting.

134
Q

Tip Of The Tongue Phenomenon

A

A type of effortful retrieval associated with a person’s feeling that they know someone but cannot quite pull it out of memory.

135
Q

Retrospective Memory

A

Remembering information from the past

136
Q

Prospective Memory

A

Remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions

137
Q

Amnesia

A

The loss of memory.

138
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

Memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events.

139
Q

Stream of Consciousness

A

Term used by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts and feelings.

140
Q

Consciousness

A

An individual’s awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about one’s experiences

141
Q

Reticular Activation Network

A

A network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus that determine arousal, one aspect of consciousness.

142
Q

Theory of Mind

A

Individuals’ understanding that they are others think, feel, perceive, and have private experiences.

143
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and interaction as well as restrictive repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities.

144
Q

Controlled Processes

A

The most alert states of human consciousness, during which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal.

145
Q

Executive Function

A

Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving.

146
Q

Automatic Processes

A

States of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities.

147
Q

Unconscious Thought

A

According to freud, a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness.

148
Q

Sleep

A

A natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness.

149
Q

Biological Rhythms

A

Periodic physiological fluctuations in the body, such as the rise and fall of hormones and accelerated/decelerated cycles of brain activity, that can influence behavior.

150
Q

Circadian Rhythms

A

Daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level.

151
Q

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A

A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize its own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark: the body’s way of monitoring the change from day to night.

152
Q

REM Sleep

A

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movement when most vivid dreams occur.

153
Q

Manifest Content

A

According to Freud, the surface content of a dream, containing dream symbols that disguise the dream’s true meaning.

154
Q

Latent Content

A

According to Freud, a dream’s hidden content; its unconscious and true meaning.

155
Q

Cognitive Theory of Dreaming

A

Theory proposing that one can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts used in studying the waking mind.

156
Q

Activation Synthesis Theory

A

Theory that dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals generated from activity in the lower part of the brain and that dreams result from the brain’s attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleep.

157
Q

Psychoactive Drugs

A

Drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception, and change moods.

158
Q

Tolerance

A

The need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect.

159
Q

Physical Dependence

A

The physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms such as pain and craving for the drug when discontinued.

160
Q

Psychological Dependence

A

The strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons, such as a feeling of well-being and reduction of stress.

161
Q

Addiction

A

A physical or psychological dependence, or both, on a drug.

162
Q

Substance Use Disorder

A

A psychological disorder in which a person’s use of psychoactive drugs affects their health, ability to work, and engage in social relationships.

163
Q

Depressants

A

Psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity.

164
Q

Alcoholism

A

Disorder that involves long term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive, and excessive use of alcoholic beverages and that impairs the drinker’s health and social relationships

165
Q

Barbiturates

A

Depressant drugs, such as nembutal and Seconal that decrease central nervous system activity.

166
Q

Tranquilizers

A

Depressant drugs such as valium and xanax that reduce anxiety and induce relaxation.

167
Q

Opiods

A

A class of drugs that act on the brain’s endorphin receptors. These include opium and its natural derivatives as well as chemicals that do not occur naturally but that have been created to mimic the activity of opium.

168
Q

Stimulants

A

Psychoactive drugs, including caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine that increase the central nervous systems activity.

169
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Psychoactive drugs that modify a person’s perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real.

170
Q

Hypnosis

A

An altered state of consciousness or a psychological state of altered attention and expectation in which the individual is unusually receptive to suggestions.

171
Q

Divided Consciousness View of Hypnosis

A

Hilgard’s view that hypnosis involves a splitting of consciousness into two separate components, one following the hypnotist’s commands and the other acting as a hidden observer.

172
Q

Social Cognitive Behavioral View of Hypnosis

A

The perspective that hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way they believe a hypnotized person should behave

173
Q

Meditation

A

The attainment of a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry; the mediator is mindfully present to their thoughts and feeling but is not consumed by them.

PSY 110 (4 decks)

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