Unit 2 Flashcards
(250 cards)
1
Q
Separates brain into left and right halves
A
Midsagittal
2
Q
Separates brain into dorsal and ventral parts
A
Horizontal
3
Q
Separates brain into anterior and posterior parts
A
Coronal
4
Q
Anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior refer to the
A
Long axis of the body
5
Q
Dorsal, ventral, rostral, and caudal refer to the
A
Long axis of the CNS
6
Q
Cerebellum
A
Motor coordination
7
Q
Brain stem contains the
A
midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
8
Q
Brain Stem function
A
regulate breathing, body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, etc
9
Q
Somatic PNS contains
A
nerves in skin, joints, and muscles that are under VOLUNTARY control
10
Q
Visceral PNS (aka ANS) contains
A
nerves in internal organs, blood vessels, and glands that are under INVOLUNTARY control
11
Q
Sympathetic Division
A
- Fight or flight
- increase heart rate and blood pressure
- depress digestive function
- release glucose
12
Q
Parasympathetic Division
A
- Rest or digest
- Decrease heart rate and blood pressure
- increase digestive function
- store glucose
13
Q
Cerebral cortex
A
outermost portion of the cerebrum
14
Q
Gyri (singular gyrus)
A
Bumps on surface of the brain
15
Q
Sulci (singular sulcus)
A
Grooves on surface of the brain
16
Q
Fissures
A
The deepest grooves that separate large regions of the brain
17
Q
Frontal Lobe
A
planning, memory, emotion
18
Q
Parietal Lobe
A
integrate sensory information
19
Q
Occipital Lobe
A
vision
20
Q
Temporal Lobe
A
Hearing
21
Q
Primary Motor Cortex
A
Frontal lobe
22
Q
Primary somatosensory cortex
A
Parietal lobe
23
Q
Primary visual cortex
A
Occipital lobe
24
Q
Primary auditory cortex
A
Temporal lobe
25
Association cortex (association areas) allow
the complex analysis of information
26
Motor maps are
Topographic representations of the body parts along the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe
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Sensory maps are
Topographic representations of the body along the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
28
Grey matter contains
the cell bodies and dendrites of neurons
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Gray matter function
receive information and regulate outgoing information
30
White matter contains
axons of neurons
31
White matter function
to transmit signals to other regions of the brain, spinal cord, and body
32
Left Hemisphere
- stimulus and control of right side of body
- speech, language, and comprehension
- analysis and calculations
- time and sequencing
- recognition of words, letters, and numbers
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Right Hemisphere
- stimulus and control of left side of body
- creativity
- spatial ability
- context/perception
- recognition of faces, places, and objects
34
Thalamus
- information relay
- known as the grand central station of the brain
35
Hypothalamus
homeostasis
36
Amygdala
Emotions
37
Hippocampus
Memory
38
Basal Ganglia consists of
- Striatum
- Globus Pallidus
- Subthalamic Nucleus
- Substantia Nigra
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Striatum consists of
- Caudate Nucleus
- Putamen
40
Globus Pallidus parts
Internal & External
41
Basal ganglia is essential for
regulating voluntary movements, cognition, and emotions
42
Meninges layers
- Dura mater
- Subdural space
- Arachnoid Membrane
- subarachnoid space
- Pia mater
43
Subarachnoid space is filled with
CSF
44
Ventricles
Interconnected cavities filled with CSF
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Choroid Plexus
specialized tissue in ventricles that secrete CSF
46
Immediate memory (sensory memory)
Visual, auditory, olfactory, kinesthetic, gustatory inputs
47
Short-term memory (working memory)
Central executive function; planning and conscious thought
48
Test for executive function
Stroop test
49
Working Memory Definition
Temporary storage and manipulation of limited amount of information to perform a complex cognitive task or achieve a goal
50
Features of WM:
- temporary
- vulnerable to disruption
- very limited capacity
51
Prefrontal cortex
executive function, self-awareness, capacity for planning and problem solving
52
Importance of forgetting
clears out unnecessary pieces of information so that we can retain the most relevant for long-term storage
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Amnesia
loss of long-term, declarative memories that should have been retained and/or inability to store new memories
54
Retrograde Amnesia
forgetting things that had occurred prior to time of trauma
55
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to form new memories following the time of trauma
56
Transient Global Amnesia
brief episode (hours to days), usually involving both anterograde and retrograde symptoms
57
Declarative memory (explicit memory) location
medial temporal lobe; diencephalon
58
Declarative memory components
- facts (semantic memories)
- events (episodic memories)
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Nondeclarative memory components
- procedural memory (skills and habits) - striatum
- classical conditioning (skeletal musculature-cerebellum, emotional responses0amygdala)
60
Procedural memory
involves learning a motor response in reaction to sensory input
61
Two types of procedural learning
- Nonassociative
- associative
62
Nonassociative learning
a change in the behavior that does not require stimuli association
- habituation
-sensitization
63
Associative learning
behavior altered by formation of associations between events
- classical conditioning & instrumental conditioning
64
Declarative memory
memory for facts, events, or spaces
65
2 types of declarative memory
- semantic
- episodic
66
Semantic memory
memory of words, meanings, and understandings
67
Episodic memory
memory of autobiographical events, situations, and experiences
68
Anatomy of episodic memory
the medial temporal lobe, hippocampus
69
Patient H.M.
- normal STM (digit span)
- profound anterograde amnesia
- partial retrograde amnesia
- impaired declarative memory, but spared procedural memory
70
Place cells
- located in hippocampus
- activated when a particular spot on a mental map is reached
71
Grid cells
- located in entorhinal cortex
- activated when an animal passes over the points that resemble grids of repeating triangles
72
Habituation
occurs when an organism reduces its response to unchanging, harmless stimuli
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Sensitization
occurs when repeated exposure to a strong stimulus increases response to other environmental stimuli
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4 molecular targets involved in sensitization
- released serotonin binds to GPCRs in sensory neuron
- GPCR activation increases second messenger cAMP level
- cAMP activates kinase PKA, which facilitates neurotransmitter release
- PKA activates transcription factor CREB to induce gene expression for long-term sensitization
75
Energy homeostatic control system
hormones that circulate in proportion to body fat stores enter the brain, where they act to reduce food intake and increase energy expenditure
76
Three components of the energy homeostasis system
- hormones
- brain
- various genetic and environmental factors
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Leptin from adipose tissue
Inhibitory
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Insulin from pancreas
Inhibitory
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CCK (cholecystokinin) from intestine
Inhibitory
80
PTT (polypeptide Y) from the ileum and colon
Inhibitory
81
Ghrelin from stomach
Stimulatory
82
How many functional zones from the hypothalamus have?
Three
83
Hypothalamus functional zones
Lateral, medial, periventricular
84
What do the hypothalamus functional zones do?
- neuronal and endocrine functions, producing and secreting many hormones
85
Command center of the endocrine system
Hypothalamus-pituitary complex
86
What controls the autonomic nervous system?
Paraventricular zone of the hypothalamus
87
Lateral hypothalamic syndrome (LHA)
anorexia and weight loss
88
Ventromedial hypothalamic syndrome (VMN)
obesity
89
The center of energy regulation
arcuate nucleus (ARC)
90
Satiety neurotransmitters
anorectic peptides
- αMSH
- CART
91
Hunger neurotransmitters
orexigenic peptides
- AgRP
- NPY
92
2 types of reward systems
- approach or activation system
- avoidance or inhibition system
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Approach/Activation system
the tendency to respond to rewarding stimuli
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Avoidance/Inhibition system
the tendency to stay away from threats
95
The timing of reward
- learn to recognize a cue for reward: associating
- Mobilize and go after reward: wanting
- Savor the reward: liking
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Reward systems involved in enjoyment
- ventral tegmental area
- nucleus accumbens
- prefrontal cortex
97
2 primary pathways for enjoyment
- Mesolimbic (VTA-NAc)
- Mesocortical (VTA-PFC)
98
What is involved in learning the association between cues and potential rewards?
The ventral tegmental area (VTA)
99
What is important for mobilizing the effort for rewards?
The Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)
100
Largest recipient of dopamine in the brain
NAc
101
High NAc activity leads to what
high willingness to expend energy and effort
102
Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)
controls the desire to obtain rewards
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The Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) is involved in
decision-making and cost-benefit analysis
104
Factors that make reward systems complex
Hormones, Age, Neural Circuit Maturation, Stress
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Complexity of reward systems: Age
dopaminergic pathway function declines with age
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Complexity of reward systems: Neural Circuit Maturation
PFC does not full mature until early adulthood
107
Complexity of reward systems: Stress
chronic severe stress diminishes NAc activity
108
What part of the brain's reward circuit does addiction effect?
VTA & NAc
109
Net effect of addiction
chronic DECREASE in basal activity and INCREASE in the intensity of phasic activist in presence of abusive drugs
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James-Lange Theory
- Emotion experienced in response to physiological changes in the body
- "We are afraid because we tremble"
111
Cannon-Bard Theory
- Emotions occur independent of emotional expression
- The first substantive theory of the brain mechanisms of emotion
112
Emotions consist of different amounts of brain activation corresponding to what two dimensions?
arousal and valence
113
Limbic system divisions
Olfactory, Parahippocampal, Amygdala/Prefrontal
114
Olfactory Division
special sensory signals (smell, flavor)
115
Parahippocampal Division
episodic memory acquisition and consolidation, spatial mapping
116
Amygdala/Prefrontal Division
visceral motor control, emotional experience and expression, appetitive drives, social behavior
117
Urbach-Wiethe disease
rare autosomal recessive condition that produces bilateral calcification and atrophy of the anterior, medial temporal lobe
- loss of emotion of fear
118
The responses of neurons in the lateral nucleaus of the amygdala (LA) are enhanced by
Fear conditioning
119
Amygdala is involved in
forming memories of emotional and painful events
120
Amygdala orchestrates
the expression of behavioral and physiological responses by way of connections to the striatum, hypothalamus, brain stem, and cortex
121
Auditory input and somatosensory input steps
Sent to basolateral nuclei and then relayed onto the central nucleus
122
Activation of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is associated with
attenuation of amygdala activity
123
Phineas Gage
- Orbital-medial PFC injury
- Impaired emotional experience & expression
- Impaired rational decision making
124
Somatic marker hypothesis
postulates that reasoned decision making is influenced by biasing signals (somatic markers) arising from changes in the body
125
Somatic states
attach value to given options and scenarios and mark them as having potential positive or negative consequences in the future
126
PTSD symptoms
intrusive memories, avoidance of similar situations, negative changes in thinking and mood, changes in physical and emotional reactions
127
In PTSD patients, the amygdala are _________ why the prefrontal cortex are ________
hyperactive ; hypoactive
128
Emotions result from association of
sensory stimuli with primary reinforcers
129
Sensory Stimuli parts
Interoceptive ; Exteroceptive
130
Interoceptive stimuli
derived from within the body
131
Exteroceptive stimuli
derived from outside the body
132
Primary reinforcers
rewards & punishmers
133
Feelings are working memory of
emotions
134
Emotional processing parts
- somatic/visceral (effectors)
- cognitive (significance)
- subjective (feelings)
135
Actogram
A graphical representation of activity patterns
136
3 Characteristics of Circadian Rhythms
1. Cyclic
2. Self-sustaining
3. Entrainable
137
Circadian Period
24 hours
138
Zeitgeber
"time givers" ; environmental cues
139
Primary zeitgeber
Light
140
The free-running rhythm
Activity patterns cycle with an endogenous period (in absence of zeitgeber)
141
When do circadian rhythms restore?
When external cues are re-introduced
142
SCN location
hypothalamus
143
What controls circadian rhythm?
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
144
SCN generates internal rhythms in
gene expression, electrophysiology, and hormone secretion
145
Mechanism that transfers information about light and darkness to SCN
Photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)
146
Where do circadian clocks exist?
In all major organs, tissues, and cells
147
Central-Peripheral Desynchrony leads to
- metabolic syndrome and obesity
- liver diseases
- GI carcinogenesis
148
Clock Genes
- CLOCK & BMAL1
- CRY & PER
- REV & ROR
- CCG
149
BMAL1-CLOCK complex activates the expression of _____ and ______ genes, which form complexes and inhibit the activity of __________
Cry, per, BMAL1-CLOCK
150
Negatively regulates the expression of BMAL1
REV
150
Positively regulates the expression of BMAL1
ROR
150
The BMAL1-CLOCK complex does what?
Regulates the expression of CCGs, which modulate essential physiological processes
150
Positive elements of circadian genes
CLOCK & BMAL1
150
Negative elements of circadian genes
CRY & PER
151
Components stabilizing the loop of circadian genes
REV & ROR
152
Circadian Rhythm
Physiological processes that vary around the 24-hour day include activity, alertness, hormone secretion, organ physiology, and gene expression
153
Sleep
A readily reversible state of reduced responsiveness to, and interaction with, the environment
154
2 functions of sleep
1. Restoration
2. Adaption (hide from predators)
155
EEG
A measurement of generalized activity of the cerebral cortex
156
EEG amplitude
a measure of synchronous activity of neurons
157
EEG rhythms
correlate with particular states of behavior
158
Awake
low amplitude, high frequency
159
Stage I
low amplitude, high frequency
160
Stage II
sleep spindles, high frequency, high amplitude
161
Stage III
high amplitude, low frequency
162
Stage IV
high amplitude, low frequency
163
Slow-Wave sleep occurs in what stage(s) of sleep?
III & IV
164
REM sleep
low amplitude, high frequency
165
Sleep is characterized by the
Cyclic occurrence of non-REM sleep and REM sleep
166
REM Sleep Physiological changes
- Increased eye movement
- Increased heart rate
- Increased respiratory rate
- Increased penile erection
- Decreased muscle tone
167
Neurons ACTIVE during wakefulness
acetylcholine
norepinephrine
serotonin
histamine
orexin
168
Neurons INACTIVE during REM Sleep
norepinephrine
serotonin
169
Neurons ACTIVE during REM Sleep
acetylcholine
170
Non-REM Sleep neuronal activity
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and serotonin decrease
171
Neuronal activity that increases during dreaming
brainstem (pons and midbrain), limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus), thalamus, and visual cortex
172
Neuronal activity that decreases during dreaming
Prefrontal cortex
173
How is information generated during dreaming?
Neural activity in the brainstem activated in the thalamus and visual cortex generates information
174
What activates the limbic system and introduces strong emotions during dreaming?
Dopaminergic neurons in the VTA
175
2 components of sleep regulation
Process S & Process C
176
Process S
build-up of homeostatic sleep drive; makes you sleepy
177
Process C
Circadian alerting signals; keeps you awake
178
Adenosine
- builds up in the brain during wakefulness due to energy consumption
- increases throughout the day
- blocked by caffeine
179
Melatonin
- a hormone secreted by Pineal gland in the brain
- helps maintain our daily schedule of sleeping and waking up
- inhibited by daylight
180
What controls the sympathetic output to the pineal gland that is responsible for melatonin secretion?
SCN
181
How does the SCN control melatonin secretion?
via an inhibitory projection to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus
182
What inhibits the secretion of melatonin by activating SCN neurons?
Light
183
What facilitates the secretion of melatonin by inhibiting SCN neurons?
Darkness
184
Sleep Deprivation
severely compromises the ability of human beings to respond to stimuli in a timely fashion
185
Sex
Different biological and physiological characteristics of males and females
186
Gender
the socially constructed characteristics of men and women
187
Gender Identity
our perception of our own gender
188
X contains how many genes?
800
189
Y contains how many genes?
50
190
SRY (sex determining region) Gene
- Y chromosome
- causes development of testes and testicular hormones
191
Genital ridge differentiates into
Either testes or ovaries
192
In XY embryos, genital ridge and ___________ differentiate into male reproductive organs
Wolffian duct
193
In XX embryos, genital ridge and ____________ differentiate into female reproductive organs
Mullerian duct
194
Steroid hormones are derived from ____________
Cholesterol
195
Male hormone (androgen)
testosterone
196
Female hormone (estrogen)
estradiol & progesterone
197
Biosynthesis of sex hormones
pass through cell membrane & bind to cytoplasmic receptors
198
Direct effects of estrogen
Binds to enzymes, channels and neurotransmitter receptors to alter membrane excitability, sensitivity to neurotransmitters, and neurotransmitter release
199
Indirect effects of estrogen
Bind to estrogen receptors in the cytoplasm and nucleus to influence gene transcription
200
Estradiol effects on neurons
Increases the number of dendritic spines on hippocampal neurons and promotes memory
201
Estradiol treatment in humans
- protects against stroke
- benefits women with multiple sclerosis
202
Hypothalamus is influenced by
both psychological factors and sensory information
203
GnRH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
204
GnRH regulates
gonadotropin (LH and FSH hormones).
- released from the anterior pituitary gland
205
Pituitary gland regulates
endocrine glands to release sex hormones
206
Males, LH
stimulates androgen release from testes
207
Males, FSH
aids sperm maturation
208
Females LH & FSH
Cause estrogen secretion from ovaries
209
Female, rise in estrogen
increased sexual interest
210
What facilitates the effect of estrogen?
Progesterone
211
Males, estrogen importance
Maintaining maintenance
212
Females, testosterone importance
Female sexual motivation
213
INAH
Interstitial Nuclei of the Anterior Hypothalamus
214
Number of nuclei in the hypothalamus
4
215
Which INAH is larger in men than in women?
INAH-3
216
BNST
Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis
217
The extended amygdala
A center of integration for limbic information and valence monitoring
218
Number of BNST neurons in men versus women
significantly more in men than women regardless of sexual orientation
219
What is associated with major depressive disorders?
low levels of serotonin
220
Polygyny
Male mates with many females
221
Polyandry
Female mates with many males
222
Oxytocin and vasopressin
neuropeptides/hormones generated in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland
223
Oxytocin increases during
- breastfeeding in mothers
- sexual intercourse in men and women
224
Language
the system of words and symbols that humans use to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings
225
Speech
the way that humans produce sounds in the words that we say using our articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, vocal cords, throats, facial, and neck muscles)
226
Pathway serving visual perception originates in the
Retina
227
Saccades
rapid eye movements that shift from one point to another
228
Auditory Cortex
Temporal lobe, identify pitch and loudness of sounds
229
Wernicke's Area
Temporal lobe, comprehension of language
230
Angular Gyrus (Geschwind's Area)
Parietal lobe, number and semantic processing, working memory
231
Broca's Area
Frontal lobe, production of language
232
Arcuate Fasciculus
Axons connecting Broca's and Wernicke's areas
233
Motor Cortex
Frontal lobe, motor control of mouth and lips
234
Wernicke's Aphasia
- fluent aphasia
- fluent speech but poor comprehension of language
235
Broca's Aphasia
- non-fluent aphasia, primarily an expressive language impairment
- speech is non-fluent, agrammatical, but can understand language
236
Conduction Aphasia
- rare form caused by lesion of arcuate fasciculus
- both expression and comprehension remain intact, but with an impairment to repeat words
237
Ventral stream processes
speech signals for comprehension
238
Doral stream maps
acoustic speech signals to frontal love articulatory networks for production
239
The ventral stream is largely ______ organized
biltaterally
240
The dorsal stream is heavily ______________ dominant
left-hemisphere
241
Language areas are
lateralized to the left hemisphere, selective for language, and strongly functionally inter-connected
242
Phonological Development
the acquisition of knowledge about the sound that distinguish meaning
243
Semantic Development
Learning the system for expressing meaning in a language
244
Syntactic Development
Learning the rules for combining words
245
Pragmatic Development
Acquiring knowledge of how language is used, including conversational conventions
246
Listening to speech activates extensive areas in the _____________ with the activation strongly biased toward the _______________ in infants
temporal lobe ; left hemisphere
