Unit 2 Flashcards
Separates brain into left and right halves
Midsagittal
Separates brain into dorsal and ventral parts
Horizontal
Separates brain into anterior and posterior parts
Coronal
Anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior refer to the
Long axis of the body
Dorsal, ventral, rostral, and caudal refer to the
Long axis of the CNS
Cerebellum
Motor coordination
Brain stem contains the
midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
Brain Stem function
regulate breathing, body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, etc
Somatic PNS contains
nerves in skin, joints, and muscles that are under VOLUNTARY control
Visceral PNS (aka ANS) contains
nerves in internal organs, blood vessels, and glands that are under INVOLUNTARY control
Sympathetic Division
- Fight or flight
- increase heart rate and blood pressure
- depress digestive function
- release glucose
Parasympathetic Division
- Rest or digest
- Decrease heart rate and blood pressure
- increase digestive function
- store glucose
Cerebral cortex
outermost portion of the cerebrum
Gyri (singular gyrus)
Bumps on surface of the brain
Sulci (singular sulcus)
Grooves on surface of the brain
Fissures
The deepest grooves that separate large regions of the brain
Frontal Lobe
planning, memory, emotion
Parietal Lobe
integrate sensory information
Occipital Lobe
vision
Temporal Lobe
Hearing
Primary Motor Cortex
Frontal lobe
Primary somatosensory cortex
Parietal lobe
Primary visual cortex
Occipital lobe
Primary auditory cortex
Temporal lobe
Association cortex (association areas) allow
the complex analysis of information
Motor maps are
Topographic representations of the body parts along the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe
Sensory maps are
Topographic representations of the body along the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
Grey matter contains
the cell bodies and dendrites of neurons
Gray matter function
receive information and regulate outgoing information
White matter contains
axons of neurons
White matter function
to transmit signals to other regions of the brain, spinal cord, and body
Left Hemisphere
- stimulus and control of right side of body
- speech, language, and comprehension
- analysis and calculations
- time and sequencing
- recognition of words, letters, and numbers
Right Hemisphere
- stimulus and control of left side of body
- creativity
- spatial ability
- context/perception
- recognition of faces, places, and objects
Thalamus
- information relay
- known as the grand central station of the brain
Hypothalamus
homeostasis
Amygdala
Emotions
Hippocampus
Memory
Basal Ganglia consists of
- Striatum
- Globus Pallidus
- Subthalamic Nucleus
- Substantia Nigra
Striatum consists of
- Caudate Nucleus
- Putamen
Globus Pallidus parts
Internal & External
Basal ganglia is essential for
regulating voluntary movements, cognition, and emotions
Meninges layers
- Dura mater
- Subdural space
- Arachnoid Membrane
- subarachnoid space
- Pia mater
Subarachnoid space is filled with
CSF
Ventricles
Interconnected cavities filled with CSF
Choroid Plexus
specialized tissue in ventricles that secrete CSF
Immediate memory (sensory memory)
Visual, auditory, olfactory, kinesthetic, gustatory inputs
Short-term memory (working memory)
Central executive function; planning and conscious thought
Test for executive function
Stroop test
Working Memory Definition
Temporary storage and manipulation of limited amount of information to perform a complex cognitive task or achieve a goal
Features of WM:
- temporary
- vulnerable to disruption
- very limited capacity
Prefrontal cortex
executive function, self-awareness, capacity for planning and problem solving
Importance of forgetting
clears out unnecessary pieces of information so that we can retain the most relevant for long-term storage
Amnesia
loss of long-term, declarative memories that should have been retained and/or inability to store new memories
Retrograde Amnesia
forgetting things that had occurred prior to time of trauma
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to form new memories following the time of trauma
Transient Global Amnesia
brief episode (hours to days), usually involving both anterograde and retrograde symptoms
Declarative memory (explicit memory) location
medial temporal lobe; diencephalon
Declarative memory components
- facts (semantic memories)
- events (episodic memories)
Nondeclarative memory components
- procedural memory (skills and habits) - striatum
- classical conditioning (skeletal musculature-cerebellum, emotional responses0amygdala)
Procedural memory
involves learning a motor response in reaction to sensory input
Two types of procedural learning
- Nonassociative
- associative
Nonassociative learning
a change in the behavior that does not require stimuli association
- habituation
-sensitization
Associative learning
behavior altered by formation of associations between events
- classical conditioning & instrumental conditioning
Declarative memory
memory for facts, events, or spaces
2 types of declarative memory
- semantic
- episodic
Semantic memory
memory of words, meanings, and understandings
Episodic memory
memory of autobiographical events, situations, and experiences
Anatomy of episodic memory
the medial temporal lobe, hippocampus
Patient H.M.
- normal STM (digit span)
- profound anterograde amnesia
- partial retrograde amnesia
- impaired declarative memory, but spared procedural memory
Place cells
- located in hippocampus
- activated when a particular spot on a mental map is reached
Grid cells
- located in entorhinal cortex
- activated when an animal passes over the points that resemble grids of repeating triangles
Habituation
occurs when an organism reduces its response to unchanging, harmless stimuli
Sensitization
occurs when repeated exposure to a strong stimulus increases response to other environmental stimuli
4 molecular targets involved in sensitization
- released serotonin binds to GPCRs in sensory neuron
- GPCR activation increases second messenger cAMP level
- cAMP activates kinase PKA, which facilitates neurotransmitter release
- PKA activates transcription factor CREB to induce gene expression for long-term sensitization
Energy homeostatic control system
hormones that circulate in proportion to body fat stores enter the brain, where they act to reduce food intake and increase energy expenditure
Three components of the energy homeostasis system
- hormones
- brain
- various genetic and environmental factors
Leptin from adipose tissue
Inhibitory
Insulin from pancreas
Inhibitory
CCK (cholecystokinin) from intestine
Inhibitory
PTT (polypeptide Y) from the ileum and colon
Inhibitory
Ghrelin from stomach
Stimulatory
How many functional zones from the hypothalamus have?
Three
Hypothalamus functional zones
Lateral, medial, periventricular
What do the hypothalamus functional zones do?
- neuronal and endocrine functions, producing and secreting many hormones
Command center of the endocrine system
Hypothalamus-pituitary complex
What controls the autonomic nervous system?
Paraventricular zone of the hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamic syndrome (LHA)
anorexia and weight loss
Ventromedial hypothalamic syndrome (VMN)
obesity
The center of energy regulation
arcuate nucleus (ARC)
Satiety neurotransmitters
anorectic peptides
- αMSH
- CART
Hunger neurotransmitters
orexigenic peptides
- AgRP
- NPY
2 types of reward systems
- approach or activation system
- avoidance or inhibition system
Approach/Activation system
the tendency to respond to rewarding stimuli
Avoidance/Inhibition system
the tendency to stay away from threats
The timing of reward
- learn to recognize a cue for reward: associating
- Mobilize and go after reward: wanting
- Savor the reward: liking
Reward systems involved in enjoyment
- ventral tegmental area
- nucleus accumbens
- prefrontal cortex
2 primary pathways for enjoyment
- Mesolimbic (VTA-NAc)
- Mesocortical (VTA-PFC)
What is involved in learning the association between cues and potential rewards?
The ventral tegmental area (VTA)
What is important for mobilizing the effort for rewards?
The Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)
Largest recipient of dopamine in the brain
NAc
High NAc activity leads to what
high willingness to expend energy and effort
Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)
controls the desire to obtain rewards
The Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) is involved in
decision-making and cost-benefit analysis
Factors that make reward systems complex
Hormones, Age, Neural Circuit Maturation, Stress
Complexity of reward systems: Age
dopaminergic pathway function declines with age
Complexity of reward systems: Neural Circuit Maturation
PFC does not full mature until early adulthood
Complexity of reward systems: Stress
chronic severe stress diminishes NAc activity
What part of the brain’s reward circuit does addiction effect?
VTA & NAc
Net effect of addiction
chronic DECREASE in basal activity and INCREASE in the intensity of phasic activist in presence of abusive drugs
James-Lange Theory
- Emotion experienced in response to physiological changes in the body
- “We are afraid because we tremble”
Cannon-Bard Theory
- Emotions occur independent of emotional expression
- The first substantive theory of the brain mechanisms of emotion
Emotions consist of different amounts of brain activation corresponding to what two dimensions?
arousal and valence
Limbic system divisions
Olfactory, Parahippocampal, Amygdala/Prefrontal
Olfactory Division
special sensory signals (smell, flavor)
Parahippocampal Division
episodic memory acquisition and consolidation, spatial mapping
Amygdala/Prefrontal Division
visceral motor control, emotional experience and expression, appetitive drives, social behavior
Urbach-Wiethe disease
rare autosomal recessive condition that produces bilateral calcification and atrophy of the anterior, medial temporal lobe
- loss of emotion of fear
The responses of neurons in the lateral nucleaus of the amygdala (LA) are enhanced by
Fear conditioning
Amygdala is involved in
forming memories of emotional and painful events
Amygdala orchestrates
the expression of behavioral and physiological responses by way of connections to the striatum, hypothalamus, brain stem, and cortex
Auditory input and somatosensory input steps
Sent to basolateral nuclei and then relayed onto the central nucleus
Activation of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is associated with
attenuation of amygdala activity
Phineas Gage
- Orbital-medial PFC injury
- Impaired emotional experience & expression
- Impaired rational decision making
Somatic marker hypothesis
postulates that reasoned decision making is influenced by biasing signals (somatic markers) arising from changes in the body
Somatic states
attach value to given options and scenarios and mark them as having potential positive or negative consequences in the future
PTSD symptoms
intrusive memories, avoidance of similar situations, negative changes in thinking and mood, changes in physical and emotional reactions
In PTSD patients, the amygdala are _________ why the prefrontal cortex are ________
hyperactive ; hypoactive
Emotions result from association of
sensory stimuli with primary reinforcers
Sensory Stimuli parts
Interoceptive ; Exteroceptive
Interoceptive stimuli
derived from within the body
Exteroceptive stimuli
derived from outside the body
Primary reinforcers
rewards & punishmers
Feelings are working memory of
emotions
Emotional processing parts
- somatic/visceral (effectors)
- cognitive (significance)
- subjective (feelings)
Actogram
A graphical representation of activity patterns
3 Characteristics of Circadian Rhythms
- Cyclic
- Self-sustaining
- Entrainable
Circadian Period
24 hours
Zeitgeber
“time givers” ; environmental cues
Primary zeitgeber
Light
The free-running rhythm
Activity patterns cycle with an endogenous period (in absence of zeitgeber)
When do circadian rhythms restore?
When external cues are re-introduced
SCN location
hypothalamus
What controls circadian rhythm?
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
SCN generates internal rhythms in
gene expression, electrophysiology, and hormone secretion
Mechanism that transfers information about light and darkness to SCN
Photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)
Where do circadian clocks exist?
In all major organs, tissues, and cells
Central-Peripheral Desynchrony leads to
- metabolic syndrome and obesity
- liver diseases
- GI carcinogenesis
Clock Genes
- CLOCK & BMAL1
- CRY & PER
- REV & ROR
- CCG
BMAL1-CLOCK complex activates the expression of _____ and ______ genes, which form complexes and inhibit the activity of __________
Cry, per, BMAL1-CLOCK
Negatively regulates the expression of BMAL1
REV
Positively regulates the expression of BMAL1
ROR
The BMAL1-CLOCK complex does what?
Regulates the expression of CCGs, which modulate essential physiological processes
Positive elements of circadian genes
CLOCK & BMAL1
Negative elements of circadian genes
CRY & PER
Components stabilizing the loop of circadian genes
REV & ROR
Circadian Rhythm
Physiological processes that vary around the 24-hour day include activity, alertness, hormone secretion, organ physiology, and gene expression
Sleep
A readily reversible state of reduced responsiveness to, and interaction with, the environment
2 functions of sleep
- Restoration
- Adaption (hide from predators)
EEG
A measurement of generalized activity of the cerebral cortex
EEG amplitude
a measure of synchronous activity of neurons
EEG rhythms
correlate with particular states of behavior
Awake
low amplitude, high frequency
Stage I
low amplitude, high frequency
Stage II
sleep spindles, high frequency, high amplitude
Stage III
high amplitude, low frequency
Stage IV
high amplitude, low frequency
Slow-Wave sleep occurs in what stage(s) of sleep?
III & IV
REM sleep
low amplitude, high frequency
Sleep is characterized by the
Cyclic occurrence of non-REM sleep and REM sleep
REM Sleep Physiological changes
- Increased eye movement
- Increased heart rate
- Increased respiratory rate
- Increased penile erection
- Decreased muscle tone
Neurons ACTIVE during wakefulness
acetylcholine
norepinephrine
serotonin
histamine
orexin
Neurons INACTIVE during REM Sleep
norepinephrine
serotonin
Neurons ACTIVE during REM Sleep
acetylcholine
Non-REM Sleep neuronal activity
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and serotonin decrease
Neuronal activity that increases during dreaming
brainstem (pons and midbrain), limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus), thalamus, and visual cortex
Neuronal activity that decreases during dreaming
Prefrontal cortex
How is information generated during dreaming?
Neural activity in the brainstem activated in the thalamus and visual cortex generates information
What activates the limbic system and introduces strong emotions during dreaming?
Dopaminergic neurons in the VTA
2 components of sleep regulation
Process S & Process C
Process S
build-up of homeostatic sleep drive; makes you sleepy
Process C
Circadian alerting signals; keeps you awake
Adenosine
- builds up in the brain during wakefulness due to energy consumption
- increases throughout the day
- blocked by caffeine
Melatonin
- a hormone secreted by Pineal gland in the brain
- helps maintain our daily schedule of sleeping and waking up
- inhibited by daylight
What controls the sympathetic output to the pineal gland that is responsible for melatonin secretion?
SCN
How does the SCN control melatonin secretion?
via an inhibitory projection to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus
What inhibits the secretion of melatonin by activating SCN neurons?
Light
What facilitates the secretion of melatonin by inhibiting SCN neurons?
Darkness
Sleep Deprivation
severely compromises the ability of human beings to respond to stimuli in a timely fashion
Sex
Different biological and physiological characteristics of males and females
Gender
the socially constructed characteristics of men and women
Gender Identity
our perception of our own gender
X contains how many genes?
800
Y contains how many genes?
50
SRY (sex determining region) Gene
- Y chromosome
- causes development of testes and testicular hormones
Genital ridge differentiates into
Either testes or ovaries
In XY embryos, genital ridge and ___________ differentiate into male reproductive organs
Wolffian duct
In XX embryos, genital ridge and ____________ differentiate into female reproductive organs
Mullerian duct
Steroid hormones are derived from ____________
Cholesterol
Male hormone (androgen)
testosterone
Female hormone (estrogen)
estradiol & progesterone
Biosynthesis of sex hormones
pass through cell membrane & bind to cytoplasmic receptors
Direct effects of estrogen
Binds to enzymes, channels and neurotransmitter receptors to alter membrane excitability, sensitivity to neurotransmitters, and neurotransmitter release
Indirect effects of estrogen
Bind to estrogen receptors in the cytoplasm and nucleus to influence gene transcription
Estradiol effects on neurons
Increases the number of dendritic spines on hippocampal neurons and promotes memory
Estradiol treatment in humans
- protects against stroke
- benefits women with multiple sclerosis
Hypothalamus is influenced by
both psychological factors and sensory information
GnRH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
GnRH regulates
gonadotropin (LH and FSH hormones).
- released from the anterior pituitary gland
Pituitary gland regulates
endocrine glands to release sex hormones
Males, LH
stimulates androgen release from testes
Males, FSH
aids sperm maturation
Females LH & FSH
Cause estrogen secretion from ovaries
Female, rise in estrogen
increased sexual interest
What facilitates the effect of estrogen?
Progesterone
Males, estrogen importance
Maintaining maintenance
Females, testosterone importance
Female sexual motivation
INAH
Interstitial Nuclei of the Anterior Hypothalamus
Number of nuclei in the hypothalamus
4
Which INAH is larger in men than in women?
INAH-3
BNST
Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis
The extended amygdala
A center of integration for limbic information and valence monitoring
Number of BNST neurons in men versus women
significantly more in men than women regardless of sexual orientation
What is associated with major depressive disorders?
low levels of serotonin
Polygyny
Male mates with many females
Polyandry
Female mates with many males
Oxytocin and vasopressin
neuropeptides/hormones generated in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland
Oxytocin increases during
- breastfeeding in mothers
- sexual intercourse in men and women
Language
the system of words and symbols that humans use to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings
Speech
the way that humans produce sounds in the words that we say using our articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, vocal cords, throats, facial, and neck muscles)
Pathway serving visual perception originates in the
Retina
Saccades
rapid eye movements that shift from one point to another
Auditory Cortex
Temporal lobe, identify pitch and loudness of sounds
Wernicke’s Area
Temporal lobe, comprehension of language
Angular Gyrus (Geschwind’s Area)
Parietal lobe, number and semantic processing, working memory
Broca’s Area
Frontal lobe, production of language
Arcuate Fasciculus
Axons connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
Motor Cortex
Frontal lobe, motor control of mouth and lips
Wernicke’s Aphasia
- fluent aphasia
- fluent speech but poor comprehension of language
Broca’s Aphasia
- non-fluent aphasia, primarily an expressive language impairment
- speech is non-fluent, agrammatical, but can understand language
Conduction Aphasia
- rare form caused by lesion of arcuate fasciculus
- both expression and comprehension remain intact, but with an impairment to repeat words
Ventral stream processes
speech signals for comprehension
Doral stream maps
acoustic speech signals to frontal love articulatory networks for production
The ventral stream is largely ______ organized
biltaterally
The dorsal stream is heavily ______________ dominant
left-hemisphere
Language areas are
lateralized to the left hemisphere, selective for language, and strongly functionally inter-connected
Phonological Development
the acquisition of knowledge about the sound that distinguish meaning
Semantic Development
Learning the system for expressing meaning in a language
Syntactic Development
Learning the rules for combining words
Pragmatic Development
Acquiring knowledge of how language is used, including conversational conventions
Listening to speech activates extensive areas in the _____________ with the activation strongly biased toward the _______________ in infants
temporal lobe ; left hemisphere