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Foundations of Neuroscience > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Separates brain into left and right halves

A

Midsagittal

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2
Q

Separates brain into dorsal and ventral parts

A

Horizontal

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3
Q

Separates brain into anterior and posterior parts

A

Coronal

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4
Q

Anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior refer to the

A

Long axis of the body

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5
Q

Dorsal, ventral, rostral, and caudal refer to the

A

Long axis of the CNS

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6
Q

Cerebellum

A

Motor coordination

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7
Q

Brain stem contains the

A

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

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8
Q

Brain Stem function

A

regulate breathing, body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, etc

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9
Q

Somatic PNS contains

A

nerves in skin, joints, and muscles that are under VOLUNTARY control

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10
Q

Visceral PNS (aka ANS) contains

A

nerves in internal organs, blood vessels, and glands that are under INVOLUNTARY control

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11
Q

Sympathetic Division

A
  • Fight or flight
  • increase heart rate and blood pressure
  • depress digestive function
  • release glucose
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12
Q

Parasympathetic Division

A
  • Rest or digest
  • Decrease heart rate and blood pressure
  • increase digestive function
  • store glucose
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13
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

outermost portion of the cerebrum

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14
Q

Gyri (singular gyrus)

A

Bumps on surface of the brain

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15
Q

Sulci (singular sulcus)

A

Grooves on surface of the brain

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16
Q

Fissures

A

The deepest grooves that separate large regions of the brain

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17
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

planning, memory, emotion

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18
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

integrate sensory information

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19
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

vision

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20
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Hearing

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21
Q

Primary Motor Cortex

A

Frontal lobe

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22
Q

Primary somatosensory cortex

A

Parietal lobe

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23
Q

Primary visual cortex

A

Occipital lobe

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24
Q

Primary auditory cortex

A

Temporal lobe

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25
Q

Association cortex (association areas) allow

A

the complex analysis of information

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26
Q

Motor maps are

A

Topographic representations of the body parts along the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe

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27
Q

Sensory maps are

A

Topographic representations of the body along the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe

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28
Q

Grey matter contains

A

the cell bodies and dendrites of neurons

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29
Q

Gray matter function

A

receive information and regulate outgoing information

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30
Q

White matter contains

A

axons of neurons

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31
Q

White matter function

A

to transmit signals to other regions of the brain, spinal cord, and body

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32
Q

Left Hemisphere

A
  • stimulus and control of right side of body
  • speech, language, and comprehension
  • analysis and calculations
  • time and sequencing
  • recognition of words, letters, and numbers
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33
Q

Right Hemisphere

A
  • stimulus and control of left side of body
  • creativity
  • spatial ability
  • context/perception
  • recognition of faces, places, and objects
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34
Q

Thalamus

A
  • information relay
  • known as the grand central station of the brain
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35
Q

Hypothalamus

A

homeostasis

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36
Q

Amygdala

A

Emotions

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37
Q

Hippocampus

A

Memory

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38
Q

Basal Ganglia consists of

A
  • Striatum
  • Globus Pallidus
  • Subthalamic Nucleus
  • Substantia Nigra
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39
Q

Striatum consists of

A
  • Caudate Nucleus
  • Putamen
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40
Q

Globus Pallidus parts

A

Internal & External

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41
Q

Basal ganglia is essential for

A

regulating voluntary movements, cognition, and emotions

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42
Q

Meninges layers

A
  • Dura mater
  • Subdural space
  • Arachnoid Membrane
  • subarachnoid space
  • Pia mater
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43
Q

Subarachnoid space is filled with

A

CSF

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44
Q

Ventricles

A

Interconnected cavities filled with CSF

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45
Q

Choroid Plexus

A

specialized tissue in ventricles that secrete CSF

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46
Q

Immediate memory (sensory memory)

A

Visual, auditory, olfactory, kinesthetic, gustatory inputs

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47
Q

Short-term memory (working memory)

A

Central executive function; planning and conscious thought

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48
Q

Test for executive function

A

Stroop test

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49
Q

Working Memory Definition

A

Temporary storage and manipulation of limited amount of information to perform a complex cognitive task or achieve a goal

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50
Q

Features of WM:

A
  • temporary
  • vulnerable to disruption
  • very limited capacity
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51
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

executive function, self-awareness, capacity for planning and problem solving

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52
Q

Importance of forgetting

A

clears out unnecessary pieces of information so that we can retain the most relevant for long-term storage

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53
Q

Amnesia

A

loss of long-term, declarative memories that should have been retained and/or inability to store new memories

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54
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

forgetting things that had occurred prior to time of trauma

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55
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

inability to form new memories following the time of trauma

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56
Q

Transient Global Amnesia

A

brief episode (hours to days), usually involving both anterograde and retrograde symptoms

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57
Q

Declarative memory (explicit memory) location

A

medial temporal lobe; diencephalon

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58
Q

Declarative memory components

A
  • facts (semantic memories)
  • events (episodic memories)
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59
Q

Nondeclarative memory components

A
  • procedural memory (skills and habits) - striatum
  • classical conditioning (skeletal musculature-cerebellum, emotional responses0amygdala)
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60
Q

Procedural memory

A

involves learning a motor response in reaction to sensory input

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61
Q

Two types of procedural learning

A
  • Nonassociative
  • associative
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62
Q

Nonassociative learning

A

a change in the behavior that does not require stimuli association
- habituation
-sensitization

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63
Q

Associative learning

A

behavior altered by formation of associations between events
- classical conditioning & instrumental conditioning

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64
Q

Declarative memory

A

memory for facts, events, or spaces

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65
Q

2 types of declarative memory

A
  • semantic
  • episodic
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66
Q

Semantic memory

A

memory of words, meanings, and understandings

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67
Q

Episodic memory

A

memory of autobiographical events, situations, and experiences

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68
Q

Anatomy of episodic memory

A

the medial temporal lobe, hippocampus

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69
Q

Patient H.M.

A
  • normal STM (digit span)
  • profound anterograde amnesia
  • partial retrograde amnesia
  • impaired declarative memory, but spared procedural memory
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70
Q

Place cells

A
  • located in hippocampus
  • activated when a particular spot on a mental map is reached
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71
Q

Grid cells

A
  • located in entorhinal cortex
  • activated when an animal passes over the points that resemble grids of repeating triangles
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72
Q

Habituation

A

occurs when an organism reduces its response to unchanging, harmless stimuli

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73
Q

Sensitization

A

occurs when repeated exposure to a strong stimulus increases response to other environmental stimuli

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74
Q

4 molecular targets involved in sensitization

A
  • released serotonin binds to GPCRs in sensory neuron
  • GPCR activation increases second messenger cAMP level
  • cAMP activates kinase PKA, which facilitates neurotransmitter release
  • PKA activates transcription factor CREB to induce gene expression for long-term sensitization
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75
Q

Energy homeostatic control system

A

hormones that circulate in proportion to body fat stores enter the brain, where they act to reduce food intake and increase energy expenditure

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76
Q

Three components of the energy homeostasis system

A
  • hormones
  • brain
  • various genetic and environmental factors
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77
Q

Leptin from adipose tissue

A

Inhibitory

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78
Q

Insulin from pancreas

A

Inhibitory

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79
Q

CCK (cholecystokinin) from intestine

A

Inhibitory

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80
Q

PTT (polypeptide Y) from the ileum and colon

A

Inhibitory

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81
Q

Ghrelin from stomach

A

Stimulatory

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82
Q

How many functional zones from the hypothalamus have?

A

Three

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83
Q

Hypothalamus functional zones

A

Lateral, medial, periventricular

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84
Q

What do the hypothalamus functional zones do?

A
  • neuronal and endocrine functions, producing and secreting many hormones
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85
Q

Command center of the endocrine system

A

Hypothalamus-pituitary complex

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86
Q

What controls the autonomic nervous system?

A

Paraventricular zone of the hypothalamus

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87
Q

Lateral hypothalamic syndrome (LHA)

A

anorexia and weight loss

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88
Q

Ventromedial hypothalamic syndrome (VMN)

A

obesity

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89
Q

The center of energy regulation

A

arcuate nucleus (ARC)

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90
Q

Satiety neurotransmitters

A

anorectic peptides
- αMSH
- CART

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91
Q

Hunger neurotransmitters

A

orexigenic peptides
- AgRP
- NPY

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92
Q

2 types of reward systems

A
  • approach or activation system
  • avoidance or inhibition system
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93
Q

Approach/Activation system

A

the tendency to respond to rewarding stimuli

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94
Q

Avoidance/Inhibition system

A

the tendency to stay away from threats

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95
Q

The timing of reward

A
  • learn to recognize a cue for reward: associating
  • Mobilize and go after reward: wanting
  • Savor the reward: liking
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96
Q

Reward systems involved in enjoyment

A
  • ventral tegmental area
  • nucleus accumbens
  • prefrontal cortex
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97
Q

2 primary pathways for enjoyment

A
  • Mesolimbic (VTA-NAc)
  • Mesocortical (VTA-PFC)
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98
Q

What is involved in learning the association between cues and potential rewards?

A

The ventral tegmental area (VTA)

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99
Q

What is important for mobilizing the effort for rewards?

A

The Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)

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100
Q

Largest recipient of dopamine in the brain

A

NAc

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101
Q

High NAc activity leads to what

A

high willingness to expend energy and effort

102
Q

Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)

A

controls the desire to obtain rewards

103
Q

The Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) is involved in

A

decision-making and cost-benefit analysis

104
Q

Factors that make reward systems complex

A

Hormones, Age, Neural Circuit Maturation, Stress

105
Q

Complexity of reward systems: Age

A

dopaminergic pathway function declines with age

106
Q

Complexity of reward systems: Neural Circuit Maturation

A

PFC does not full mature until early adulthood

107
Q

Complexity of reward systems: Stress

A

chronic severe stress diminishes NAc activity

108
Q

What part of the brain’s reward circuit does addiction effect?

A

VTA & NAc

109
Q

Net effect of addiction

A

chronic DECREASE in basal activity and INCREASE in the intensity of phasic activist in presence of abusive drugs

110
Q

James-Lange Theory

A
  • Emotion experienced in response to physiological changes in the body
  • “We are afraid because we tremble”
111
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A
  • Emotions occur independent of emotional expression
  • The first substantive theory of the brain mechanisms of emotion
112
Q

Emotions consist of different amounts of brain activation corresponding to what two dimensions?

A

arousal and valence

113
Q

Limbic system divisions

A

Olfactory, Parahippocampal, Amygdala/Prefrontal

114
Q

Olfactory Division

A

special sensory signals (smell, flavor)

115
Q

Parahippocampal Division

A

episodic memory acquisition and consolidation, spatial mapping

116
Q

Amygdala/Prefrontal Division

A

visceral motor control, emotional experience and expression, appetitive drives, social behavior

117
Q

Urbach-Wiethe disease

A

rare autosomal recessive condition that produces bilateral calcification and atrophy of the anterior, medial temporal lobe
- loss of emotion of fear

118
Q

The responses of neurons in the lateral nucleaus of the amygdala (LA) are enhanced by

A

Fear conditioning

119
Q

Amygdala is involved in

A

forming memories of emotional and painful events

120
Q

Amygdala orchestrates

A

the expression of behavioral and physiological responses by way of connections to the striatum, hypothalamus, brain stem, and cortex

121
Q

Auditory input and somatosensory input steps

A

Sent to basolateral nuclei and then relayed onto the central nucleus

122
Q

Activation of medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is associated with

A

attenuation of amygdala activity

123
Q

Phineas Gage

A
  • Orbital-medial PFC injury
  • Impaired emotional experience & expression
  • Impaired rational decision making
124
Q

Somatic marker hypothesis

A

postulates that reasoned decision making is influenced by biasing signals (somatic markers) arising from changes in the body

125
Q

Somatic states

A

attach value to given options and scenarios and mark them as having potential positive or negative consequences in the future

126
Q

PTSD symptoms

A

intrusive memories, avoidance of similar situations, negative changes in thinking and mood, changes in physical and emotional reactions

127
Q

In PTSD patients, the amygdala are _________ why the prefrontal cortex are ________

A

hyperactive ; hypoactive

128
Q

Emotions result from association of

A

sensory stimuli with primary reinforcers

129
Q

Sensory Stimuli parts

A

Interoceptive ; Exteroceptive

130
Q

Interoceptive stimuli

A

derived from within the body

131
Q

Exteroceptive stimuli

A

derived from outside the body

132
Q

Primary reinforcers

A

rewards & punishmers

133
Q

Feelings are working memory of

A

emotions

134
Q

Emotional processing parts

A
  • somatic/visceral (effectors)
  • cognitive (significance)
  • subjective (feelings)
135
Q

Actogram

A

A graphical representation of activity patterns

136
Q

3 Characteristics of Circadian Rhythms

A
  1. Cyclic
  2. Self-sustaining
  3. Entrainable
137
Q

Circadian Period

A

24 hours

138
Q

Zeitgeber

A

“time givers” ; environmental cues

139
Q

Primary zeitgeber

A

Light

140
Q

The free-running rhythm

A

Activity patterns cycle with an endogenous period (in absence of zeitgeber)

141
Q

When do circadian rhythms restore?

A

When external cues are re-introduced

142
Q

SCN location

A

hypothalamus

143
Q

What controls circadian rhythm?

A

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

144
Q

SCN generates internal rhythms in

A

gene expression, electrophysiology, and hormone secretion

145
Q

Mechanism that transfers information about light and darkness to SCN

A

Photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (RGCs)

146
Q

Where do circadian clocks exist?

A

In all major organs, tissues, and cells

147
Q

Central-Peripheral Desynchrony leads to

A
  • metabolic syndrome and obesity
  • liver diseases
  • GI carcinogenesis
148
Q

Clock Genes

A
  • CLOCK & BMAL1
  • CRY & PER
  • REV & ROR
  • CCG
149
Q

BMAL1-CLOCK complex activates the expression of _____ and ______ genes, which form complexes and inhibit the activity of __________

A

Cry, per, BMAL1-CLOCK

150
Q

Negatively regulates the expression of BMAL1

A

REV

150
Q

Positively regulates the expression of BMAL1

A

ROR

150
Q

The BMAL1-CLOCK complex does what?

A

Regulates the expression of CCGs, which modulate essential physiological processes

150
Q

Positive elements of circadian genes

A

CLOCK & BMAL1

150
Q

Negative elements of circadian genes

A

CRY & PER

151
Q

Components stabilizing the loop of circadian genes

A

REV & ROR

152
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

Physiological processes that vary around the 24-hour day include activity, alertness, hormone secretion, organ physiology, and gene expression

153
Q

Sleep

A

A readily reversible state of reduced responsiveness to, and interaction with, the environment

154
Q

2 functions of sleep

A
  1. Restoration
  2. Adaption (hide from predators)
155
Q

EEG

A

A measurement of generalized activity of the cerebral cortex

156
Q

EEG amplitude

A

a measure of synchronous activity of neurons

157
Q

EEG rhythms

A

correlate with particular states of behavior

158
Q

Awake

A

low amplitude, high frequency

159
Q

Stage I

A

low amplitude, high frequency

160
Q

Stage II

A

sleep spindles, high frequency, high amplitude

161
Q

Stage III

A

high amplitude, low frequency

162
Q

Stage IV

A

high amplitude, low frequency

163
Q

Slow-Wave sleep occurs in what stage(s) of sleep?

A

III & IV

164
Q

REM sleep

A

low amplitude, high frequency

165
Q

Sleep is characterized by the

A

Cyclic occurrence of non-REM sleep and REM sleep

166
Q

REM Sleep Physiological changes

A
  • Increased eye movement
  • Increased heart rate
  • Increased respiratory rate
  • Increased penile erection
  • Decreased muscle tone
167
Q

Neurons ACTIVE during wakefulness

A

acetylcholine
norepinephrine
serotonin
histamine
orexin

168
Q

Neurons INACTIVE during REM Sleep

A

norepinephrine
serotonin

169
Q

Neurons ACTIVE during REM Sleep

A

acetylcholine

170
Q

Non-REM Sleep neuronal activity

A

acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and serotonin decrease

171
Q

Neuronal activity that increases during dreaming

A

brainstem (pons and midbrain), limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus), thalamus, and visual cortex

172
Q

Neuronal activity that decreases during dreaming

A

Prefrontal cortex

173
Q

How is information generated during dreaming?

A

Neural activity in the brainstem activated in the thalamus and visual cortex generates information

174
Q

What activates the limbic system and introduces strong emotions during dreaming?

A

Dopaminergic neurons in the VTA

175
Q

2 components of sleep regulation

A

Process S & Process C

176
Q

Process S

A

build-up of homeostatic sleep drive; makes you sleepy

177
Q

Process C

A

Circadian alerting signals; keeps you awake

178
Q

Adenosine

A
  • builds up in the brain during wakefulness due to energy consumption
  • increases throughout the day
  • blocked by caffeine
179
Q

Melatonin

A
  • a hormone secreted by Pineal gland in the brain
  • helps maintain our daily schedule of sleeping and waking up
  • inhibited by daylight
180
Q

What controls the sympathetic output to the pineal gland that is responsible for melatonin secretion?

A

SCN

181
Q

How does the SCN control melatonin secretion?

A

via an inhibitory projection to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

182
Q

What inhibits the secretion of melatonin by activating SCN neurons?

A

Light

183
Q

What facilitates the secretion of melatonin by inhibiting SCN neurons?

A

Darkness

184
Q

Sleep Deprivation

A

severely compromises the ability of human beings to respond to stimuli in a timely fashion

185
Q

Sex

A

Different biological and physiological characteristics of males and females

186
Q

Gender

A

the socially constructed characteristics of men and women

187
Q

Gender Identity

A

our perception of our own gender

188
Q

X contains how many genes?

A

800

189
Q

Y contains how many genes?

A

50

190
Q

SRY (sex determining region) Gene

A
  • Y chromosome
  • causes development of testes and testicular hormones
191
Q

Genital ridge differentiates into

A

Either testes or ovaries

192
Q

In XY embryos, genital ridge and ___________ differentiate into male reproductive organs

A

Wolffian duct

193
Q

In XX embryos, genital ridge and ____________ differentiate into female reproductive organs

A

Mullerian duct

194
Q

Steroid hormones are derived from ____________

A

Cholesterol

195
Q

Male hormone (androgen)

A

testosterone

196
Q

Female hormone (estrogen)

A

estradiol & progesterone

197
Q

Biosynthesis of sex hormones

A

pass through cell membrane & bind to cytoplasmic receptors

198
Q

Direct effects of estrogen

A

Binds to enzymes, channels and neurotransmitter receptors to alter membrane excitability, sensitivity to neurotransmitters, and neurotransmitter release

199
Q

Indirect effects of estrogen

A

Bind to estrogen receptors in the cytoplasm and nucleus to influence gene transcription

200
Q

Estradiol effects on neurons

A

Increases the number of dendritic spines on hippocampal neurons and promotes memory

201
Q

Estradiol treatment in humans

A
  • protects against stroke
  • benefits women with multiple sclerosis
202
Q

Hypothalamus is influenced by

A

both psychological factors and sensory information

203
Q

GnRH

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

204
Q

GnRH regulates

A

gonadotropin (LH and FSH hormones).
- released from the anterior pituitary gland

205
Q

Pituitary gland regulates

A

endocrine glands to release sex hormones

206
Q

Males, LH

A

stimulates androgen release from testes

207
Q

Males, FSH

A

aids sperm maturation

208
Q

Females LH & FSH

A

Cause estrogen secretion from ovaries

209
Q

Female, rise in estrogen

A

increased sexual interest

210
Q

What facilitates the effect of estrogen?

A

Progesterone

211
Q

Males, estrogen importance

A

Maintaining maintenance

212
Q

Females, testosterone importance

A

Female sexual motivation

213
Q

INAH

A

Interstitial Nuclei of the Anterior Hypothalamus

214
Q

Number of nuclei in the hypothalamus

A

4

215
Q

Which INAH is larger in men than in women?

A

INAH-3

216
Q

BNST

A

Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis

217
Q

The extended amygdala

A

A center of integration for limbic information and valence monitoring

218
Q

Number of BNST neurons in men versus women

A

significantly more in men than women regardless of sexual orientation

219
Q

What is associated with major depressive disorders?

A

low levels of serotonin

220
Q

Polygyny

A

Male mates with many females

221
Q

Polyandry

A

Female mates with many males

222
Q

Oxytocin and vasopressin

A

neuropeptides/hormones generated in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland

223
Q

Oxytocin increases during

A
  • breastfeeding in mothers
  • sexual intercourse in men and women
224
Q

Language

A

the system of words and symbols that humans use to communicate ideas, thoughts, and feelings

225
Q

Speech

A

the way that humans produce sounds in the words that we say using our articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, vocal cords, throats, facial, and neck muscles)

226
Q

Pathway serving visual perception originates in the

A

Retina

227
Q

Saccades

A

rapid eye movements that shift from one point to another

228
Q

Auditory Cortex

A

Temporal lobe, identify pitch and loudness of sounds

229
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Temporal lobe, comprehension of language

230
Q

Angular Gyrus (Geschwind’s Area)

A

Parietal lobe, number and semantic processing, working memory

231
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Frontal lobe, production of language

232
Q

Arcuate Fasciculus

A

Axons connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas

233
Q

Motor Cortex

A

Frontal lobe, motor control of mouth and lips

234
Q

Wernicke’s Aphasia

A
  • fluent aphasia
  • fluent speech but poor comprehension of language
235
Q

Broca’s Aphasia

A
  • non-fluent aphasia, primarily an expressive language impairment
  • speech is non-fluent, agrammatical, but can understand language
236
Q

Conduction Aphasia

A
  • rare form caused by lesion of arcuate fasciculus
  • both expression and comprehension remain intact, but with an impairment to repeat words
237
Q

Ventral stream processes

A

speech signals for comprehension

238
Q

Doral stream maps

A

acoustic speech signals to frontal love articulatory networks for production

239
Q

The ventral stream is largely ______ organized

A

biltaterally

240
Q

The dorsal stream is heavily ______________ dominant

A

left-hemisphere

241
Q

Language areas are

A

lateralized to the left hemisphere, selective for language, and strongly functionally inter-connected

242
Q

Phonological Development

A

the acquisition of knowledge about the sound that distinguish meaning

243
Q

Semantic Development

A

Learning the system for expressing meaning in a language

244
Q

Syntactic Development

A

Learning the rules for combining words

245
Q

Pragmatic Development

A

Acquiring knowledge of how language is used, including conversational conventions

246
Q

Listening to speech activates extensive areas in the _____________ with the activation strongly biased toward the _______________ in infants

A

temporal lobe ; left hemisphere

Foundations of Neuroscience (2 decks)

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